^A^/.. ;L'B.\.5 \ a 

.=^/,.// >C^3 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




See pages 147, 181, 182. 183. 



Calkins'' s New Object Lessons. 






PRIMARY 

OBJECT LESSONS, 



TRAINING THE SENSES AND DEVELOPING THE 
FACULTIES OF CHILDREN. 

A MANUAL OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION 

FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 

I 
By n/a. calkins, 

Author of "Phonic Chaktb," akd "School and Family Charts." 



■ Present to children things before words, ideas before names. Train them 
1 to observe, to do, and to tell." 



FIFTEENTH EDITION. — REWRITTEN AND ENLARGED. 



N-EW YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
1870. 



^ 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S70, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of New York. 



PEEFACE 

TO THE FIRST EDITION, 



"Instruction must begin with actual inspection, not with verbal 
descriptions of things. From such inspection it is that certain knowl- 
edge comes. What is actually seen remains faster in the memory 
than description or enumeration a hundred times as often repeated. " 

Thus Avrote John Amos Comenius, an exiled teacher of Austria, 
about the middle of the seventeenth century. And to the introduc- 
tion of his works Germany is largely indebted for the great progress in 
her schools which commenced during that century. 

Said the great Swiss educator Pestalozzi at the close of the eight- 
eenth century, 

"Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge. The first 
object, then, in education, must be to lead a child to observe with 
accuracy ; the second, to express with correctness the result of his ob- 
servations." 

On the philosophical principles taught by those two great educators, 
and confirmed by the experiences of subsequent observers, is based 
the system of mental development illustrated in the present work. In 
the application of these principles, however, there have been successive 
clianges resulting in the various forms of the inductive methods of ed- 
ucation now practiced in this country and in Europe. Not to those 
noble educators belongs all the credit of the present system of teach- 
ing from objects, the unknown from the known ; they developed prin- 
ciples only ; the systems have grown out of the study and application 
of those principles by succeeding educators. 

******** 

With an earnest desire to contribute something tow^ard a general 
radical change in the system of primary education in this country — a 
change from the plan of exercising the memory chiefly to that of de- 
veloping the observing powers — a change from an artificial to a natu- 



IV PREFACE. 

ral plan — one in accordance with the philosophy of mind and its laws 
of development — the author commenced the following pages. 

******** 
In the preparation of a work upon a subject of such importance as 
one claiming to be a guide in the early education of the young, he felt 
it his duty to avail himself of the best sources of information by which 
he could add to his own the observation and experience of the most 
successful educators. He has accordingly examined the various sys- 
tems of infant education of Europe, and especially those by Wilder- 
spin, Stow, and Currie, and that practiced by the "Home and Colo- 
nial School Society" of London, as presented by Elizabeth Mayo in 
her " Model Lessons" and "Manual of Elementary Instruction." 

******** 
The work differs from others prepared for teachers in this important 
feature : it illustrates how the teacher should prcrceed at each success- 
ive step in developing the minds of children. In telling what ought to 
he done, it proceeds to show how to do it hy illustrative examples. 

******** 
In preparing this work, the aim of the author has not been to pro- 
duce a faultless composition, but rather a book adapted to the wants 
of teachers in presenting a natural, simple, and philosophical system 
of primary education so clearly and minutely that no teacher can fail 
of gaining from it not only its principles, but a knowledge of how to 
apply them under the varying circumstances in which he may be 
placed. With the hope that he has not failed in this respect, this 
volume is earnestly commended to the kind consideration of teachers, 
parents, and all friends of education. N. A. Calkins. 

New Ymk, June^ 1861, 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. 



"Entirely rewritten, reillustratecl, and enlarged," briefly describes 
tlie relation of this work to the former editions of my Primary Object 
Lessons. This is essentially a new work, although it treats chiefly 
upon the same subjects that were presented in the former editions. 
While these lessons are nearly all new in form, they are intended to 
maintain and illustrate more clearly the principles of true objective 
teaching, and the relation of this system of education to the common 
branches of school instruction. 

The lessons of this work embody, in the subjects treated, the results 
of an experience of nearly eight years as a Superintendent of the Pri- 
mary Schools in the city of New York ; also as Lecturer in the Satur- 
day Normal School on Principles and Methods of Teaching. Some 
idea of the nature and extent of this experience may be obtained from 
the fact that there are employed in these Primary Schools alone more 
than twelve hundred teachers, and that these teachers have under 
their instruction a hundred thousand children. 

Three subjects which were included in former editions — "Weight," 
"Place," and "Physical Training" — haA^e been omitted in this work, 
and^ue new subjects have been added to it — "Home Training of the 
Senses ;" "Exercises for Training in Habits of Thinking and Speak- 
ing promptly, and a correct Use of Language ;" " Time ;" " How to 
Teach the Sounds of Language ;" and "Lessons on Qualities." Be- 
sides, ' ' Form, " ' ' Color, " ' ' Number, " and ' ' Reading" have been much 
extended by a variety of illustrative exercises, and the lessons on the 
various subjects introduced have been arranged in graded steps, with 
a view to adapt the work to the wants of teachers under all circum- 
stances. 

The difference between the lessons of this work and those of the 
former editions, in the subjects which are included in both, consists 
chiefly in the methods of giving them ; the principles of the system on 



VI PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. 

which they are founded remain unchanged. A jirinciple of teaching 
is a law based upon conditions of the minds of those to be taught. A 
method of teaching is simply the form or manner of presenting the sub- 
jects of instruction. A true principle remains the same always ; while 
there may be many methods of presenting a subject, each in conform- 
ity to the same principle. 

Between a child from six to nine years of age, and a youth from 
twelve to fifteen, there is a greater difference in development than be- 
tween the youth and the man. There should be a corresponding dif- 
ference in the subjects and modes of instruction for these periods. 
During childhood, the attention must be largely occupied with the ac- 
cumulation of f\\cts through the exercise of the several senses. By 
means of a proper training of its various faculties, the child attains the 
power of systematic effort in learning, and thus the youth is enabled 
to acquire a suitable knowledge for commencing the duties of the man. 
Unless the child attains this power, the youth can not procure the 
necessary knowledge. How to properly educate the child, and pre- 
pare it for the studies of youth, that it may gain the knowledge req- 
uisite for the duties of manhood, is the most difficult problem in edu- 
cation. 

Granting that such a knowledge of our language as will enable one 
to speak, read, and write it readily, and such an acquaintance with 
arithmetic as will prepare one to engage in the business affairs of life, 
are the indispensable subjects of school instruction for youth, yet the 
demands of education for the period of childhood can not be met by 
elementary instruction in these branches alone. Language itself can 
not be learned until the mind has been brought in contact, through its 
several senses, with the qualities and characteristics of things around 
us. It is only by attention to objects, animals, plants, occupations — 
in other words, by the observation of whatever may be the surround- 
ings of itself, that the child's mind undergoes that developing process 
which gives it the power of subsequently acquiring any branch of 
knowledge. 

Since the period of childhood is most profitably spent in attending 
to those things which will train the mind in power and in facility of 
mental acquisition, the necessity for that varied character of school 
instruction M'hich is afforded by means of Object Lessons must be ap- 
parent to all educators, and the importance of this system of education 



PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. Vll 

be acknowledged by every teacher who will give the subject a careful 
and candid consideration. 

It is well known that the majority of those who engage in school 
teaching commence its duties Avith little or no professional training. 
Their preparation for this work usually consists in learning the several 
branches which are generally taught in school, without attention to 
methods of instruction, or to exercises specially adapted to train the 
mental powers of children ; consequently, these teachers enter upon 
their duties with but little knowledge of the philosophy or the prin- 
ciples which should guide them in their work. In view of these facts, 
books giving practical suggestions relative to methods of elementary 
instruction in accordance with right principles of education become 
almost indispensable to those who engage in teaching. To meet this 
necessity in the department of primary education, and lead teachers 
to take proper steps toward success in their work, is the design of 
this book. 

I have deemed it best to devote this work almost entirely to meth- 
ods of teaching, at the same time aiming, by means of the series of 
graded lessons in the subjects treated upon, to lead teachers to an 
understanding of the principles which underlie correct methods of 
instruction. In a portion of another work now in preparation— " A 
Manual of Object Teaching"— I shall endeavor to give enough of 
mental science, in its relations to education, to enable me to present 
more clearly the philosophy on which the principles of correct teaching 
are based. 

With grateful remembrances of the kind manner in which the for- 
mer editions of this work were received, and homing that in its new 
form this may become still more useful in the cause of Primary In- 
struction, it is once more intrusted to the generous friends of education. 

New Yokk, June, 18T0. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Principles on which Object Teaching is founded.... 15-23 

Home Training of the Senses 24-38 

Exercises for Training the Sense of Sight, 25 ; Hearing, 26 ; 
Taste, 27 ; Smell, 29 ; Touch, 29 ; The Hand, 32 ; Home 
Training in Form, 33 ; In Color, 35 ; In Number, 37 ; Other 
Home Exercises, 38 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 38. 

Introductory School Lessons for cultivating Observation 
and the Use of Language 39-46 

Conversational Exercises about a Knife ; Cap ; Ball ; 

Stove 42,43 

Exercises for Training in Habits of Thinking and 
Speaking Promptly, and a correct Use of Language. ... 47-50 
What I can see ; hear ; taste ; smell ; feel ; What I can 
do ; Where I can go ; How I can go ; What I would like 
to have; What I can wear 47 

FORM 51-138 

Apparatus for illustrating Form (Illustrations), 54-58 ; Les- 
sons on Form — When to teach them — which first, 59 ; Or- 
der of Lessons for City Schools, 59-61. 

Resemblance and Difference in Shape 62-64 

First Step, 62 ; Second Step, 63 ; Suggestions for the Teach- 
er, 64. 

Shape of Lines 65-72 

First Step — Straight, Crooked, and Curved Lines, 65 ; Sug- 
gestions for the Teacher, 67, 70. Second Step — Wave and 
Spiral Lines, 68. Third Step — Descriptions of Lines, and 
drawing Lines ; straight ; crooked ; curved ; wave, 70-72. 

Position of Lines 73-79 

First Step — Slanting and Vertical Lines, 73. Second Step 
— Horizontal and Oblique Lines, 74. Third Step — Parallel 
and Perpendicular Lines, 76 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 79. 

Corners and Angles 80-88 

First Step — Corners, 80. Second Step — Angles ; Acute 
Angle ; Eight Angle ; Drawing Angles, 82 ; Suggestions for 
the Teacher, SQ. Third Siep— Angles, 87. 
A 2 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Plane Forms 89-92 

First Step, 80. Second Step— Square; Oblong, 90. Third 
Step, 92. 

Triangles 93-96 

Suggestions for the Teacher, 93. First Step — Triangles, 93. 
Second Step — Equilateral Triangle ; Right-angled Triangle, 
94. Third Step — Isosceles Triangle ; Obtuse-angled Trian- 
gle ; Scalene Triangle, 95. 

Four-sided Forms 97-101 

First Step — Square ; Oblong ; Rhomb, 97. Second Step — 
Rhomboid, 101. Third Step — Trapezium; Trapezoid; Quad- 
rilateral ; Parallelogram ; Suggestions for the Teacher, 101. 

Many-sided Forms 103-105 

First Step — Pentagon ; Hexagon, 103. Second^ Step — Hep- 
tagon ; Octagon ; Nonagon ; Decagon ; Polygons, 101 ; Sug- 
gestions for the Teacher, 105. 

Circular Forms 106-114 

First Step — Circle; Centre; Semicircle; Ring, 106. Sec- 
ond Step— Crescent ; Ellipse ; Oval, 109. Third Step— Cir- 
cumference', Arc; Diameter, 111. Fourth Step — Radius; 
Quadrant; Sector, 113. 

Surface and Faces 115-118 

First Step — Plane and Curved Surfaces, 115. Second Step 
— Faces of Solids, 1 1 6. Third Step — Surfaces, Convex and 
Concave, 117. 

Solid Figures— Sphere, Hemisphere, Spheroids 119-122 

First Step — Ball shape, 119. Second Step — Sphere ; Hemi- 
sphere ; Solids, 1 19. Third Step — Spheroids and Ovoid, 1 22. 

Cylinder and Cone 123-126 

First Step — Cylinder, 123. Second Step — Cylinder ; Cone ; 
Base; Apex, 121. Third Step — Conical; Conoid, 126. 

Cube and Cubical Forms 127,128 

First Step— Cube, 127. Second Step— Cuhical forms, 127 ; 
Suggestions for Teachers, 128. 

Prisms , 129-132 

First Step — Prisms ; Triangular Prism; Square Prism, 129. 
Second Step — Prisms ; Hexagonal Prisms, 130 ; Suggestions 
for the Teacher, 132. 

Pyramids 133-135 

First Step — Shapes of Pyramids, 133. Second Step — Tri- 
angular Pyramids ; Square Pyramids, 134 ; Suggestions for 
the Teacher, 135. 

Descriptions of Objects by their Forms 136-138 



CONTENTS. XI 



PAGE 

COLOR 139-190 



Importance of Training the Eye 139 

Color blindness, 140. 

Facts about Color for Teachers 144-156 

Classification of Colors, 145 ; combinations of, 147 ; descrip- 
tions of, 147; Reds, 148 ; Yellows, 149 ; Blues, 149 ; Orange, 
150 ; Greens, 150; Purples, 151 ; Browns, 152 ; Grays, 153 ; 
White, 153; Black, 153; Colors of Animals, 154; Order for 
Lessons on Color, 156. 

Resemblance and Difference in Color 157-161 

First Step — Distinguishing Colors, 157. Second Step — 
Grouping Colors, 159. Third Step — Light and dark Col- 
ors, 160. 

Naming Colors 162-165 

First Step — Naming Colors at sight, 162. Second Step — 
Naming Objects by Colors, 163. Third Step — Grouping 
names of Objects by Colors, 165. 

Color and Form combined 166-168 

Standard Colors 169-174 

First StejJ—lled ; Yellow ; Blue, 169. Second /S^e;?— Or- 
ange; Green; Purple, 171. Third Step — White; Black,! 72. 

Shades and Tints of Color 175,176 

First Step — Shades, 175. Second Step — Tints of Colors, 176. 

Hues of Colors 177 

Classes of Colors 178-180 

Suggestions for the Teacher, 1 79 ; Grouping Colors in Classes, 
179 ; Browns and Grays, 180. 

Primary and Secondary Colors 181-187 

First Step — Mixing Red and YelloAV, 181 ; Suggestions for 
the Teacher, 182; Mixing Yellow and Blue, 182; Mixing 
Red and Blue, 184. Second Step — Primary Colors, 185; 
Secondary Colors, 186. 

Colors of Animals 188-190 

NUMBER 191-260 

First Ideas of Number 194-199 

First Step — Counting 1 to 9, 194 ; Value of Numbers, 197. 
Second Step— Conntmg 10 to 19, 1 98. Third Step— Count- 
ing 20 to 29, 198 ; Order of Numbers, 199. 

First Ideas of Figures 200-211 

Fi7-st Step — Figures as Symbols, first Group, to 9, 200. 
Second Step — Second Group of Figures, 10 to 19, 204 ; Sug- 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

gestions for the Teacher, 205. Third Step — Group of 20 to 
29 ; 30 to 39, 20G. Fourth Step— Gtout^ of Hundreds, 210. 

Adding 212-218 

First Step, 212. Second Step, 213. Third Step, 215 ; Sug- 
gestions for Teachers, 218. 

Subtracting 219-222 

First Step, 219. Second Step, 221. Third Step, 221. 

Order of Numbers 223 

Adding without Counting 224-237 

Adding by Decades, 221 ; Combinations that produce ; 1 ; 
2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9,228. 

How a Class may drill itself. 235 

Numeration and Notation 238-247 

First Step — Numeration, 238; Illustrate Tens and Hun- 
dreds with bundles of Sticks, 239, 242. First Step— Nota- 
tion, 241. Second Step — Numeration and Notation, 241. 
Third Step, 244 ; Suggestions, 246. Fourth Step, 247. 

Addition 248,249 

First Step, 248. Second Step, 248. 

Subtraction 250-252 

First Step, 250. Second Step, 250. Third Step, 251. 

Multiplying Numbers 253-255 

First Step, 253. Second aS^c/j— Multiplication Table, 253- 
255 ; Division Tables, 256. 

Equal Parts, or Fractions 257-259 

Halves and Eourths, 257 ; Thirds, 258 ; Suggestions, 259. 

SIZE 261-281 

Size in General 261-263 

Words used to signify Size, 263. 

Length and Measure 264-267 

First Step — Length, 264. Second /Sie/?— Measure of, 265. 

"Width and Thickness 268,269 

Height and Depth 270,271 

Standard Measure 272-274 

First Step — Length, 272. Second Step — Capacity, 273. 

Distance and Measured Distance 275-281 

First Step — Eelative Distance, 275. Second Step — Meas- 
ured Distance, 276. Third Step, 21 7. Fourth Step— Tables 
of Length and Capacity, 278 ; Grouping Words representing 
kinds of Size, 281. 



CONTENTS. XIU 

PAGE 

DRAWING 282-287 

How Drawing may be commenced 282 

First Step, 283. Second Step, 281. Third Step, 284. 
Fourth Step, 28G. Writing, 287. 

TIME. 

Time and Measure of Time 288-290 

First Step, 288. Second Step— Tahle, 289. 

SOUND 291-312 

Importance of Training the Ear 291 

Exercises for distinguishing Sounds 293 

Comparing and classifying Sounds 294-29G 

First Step, 291. Second Step, 295. Third Step — Sounds 

as Long and Short, Loud and Soft, etc., 296. 
How to Teach the Sounds of Language.. 297-311 

First Step, 297. Second Step, 299. Third Step, 299-307. 

Fourth Step — Analysis of Sounds, 307 ; How the Sounds are 

made, 309 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 312. 

PRIMAKY READING 313-338 

Some of the Methods used in teaching Reading described, 31 3 ; 
Eacts to be Observed in teaching Reading, 321 ; The Objec*; 
Method, 326. 
Steps in Reading by the Object Method 327-332 

First Step — Whole Words, 327. Second Step — Words by 
Sounds, 327. Third Step— Words by Letters, 328. Fourth 
Step —Words by Sound and Letters, 328. Fifth Step— 
Grouping Words, 328 ; Suggestions for the Teacher, 329-332. 
Reading from Books — How to Teach the first Lesson,... 333-337 
First Step — Reading Words, 333. Second Step — Reading 
Sentences, 331. Third Step — TelHng what has been read, 
331. Fourth Step — Meaning of Words, 335 ; Suggestions 
for the Teacher, 335-337; Spelling, 337, 338. 

QUALITIES OF OB JECTS. . 339-358 

Importance of teaching Qualities, 339. 
Lessons on Qualities — To Distinguish and Name them... 310-358 
Rough and Smooth, 310 ; Sticky, 311 ; Slippery, 311 ; Brit- 
tle, 312 ; Tough, 312 ; Porous, 313 ; Transparent, 311 ; t 
Opaque, 316 ; Elasticity, 316 ; Flexible and Pliable, 350 ; 
Liquid and Fluid, 351 ; Solid, 353 ; Absorbent, 351 ; Com- 
bustible, 351 ; Fusible, 355 ; Soluble, 355 ; Pungent, 356 ; 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Astringent, 35G ; Eibrous, 357 ; Grouping Qualities by the 
• Senses, 358. 

OBJECT LESSONS 35l)-400 

Their Nature and Design, 359. 
Lessons on Objects — First Stage 363-378 

SuggestionsfortheTeacher, 363, 378; A Chair, 363 ; Bells, 

366 ; Pin, 365) ; Watch, 371 ; Hat, 373 ; Shoes, 374 ; Door, 

375; A Letter, 376; Thimble, 377 ; Key, 378. 
Lessons on Objects — Second Stage 379-391 

Suggestions for the Teacher, 379 ; Sponge, 379 ; Water, 383 ; 

Milk, 384; Glass, 385; Wool, 387; Gum Arabic, 390 ; Cork, 

390 ; other Objects, 391. 
Lessons on Oh^^cts— Third Stage 392-400 

Suggestions for Teachers, 392 ; Leather, 392 ; Wind, 395 ; 

Wafers, 397 ; Lead, 398 ; Iron, 399 ; Copper, 399 ; Silver, 

399 ; Gold, 399 ; other Lessons on Objects, 400. 

HUMAN BODY 40i-43i 

Training Lessons on the Human Body 403-412 

The Human Body as a whole, 403 ; Parts of the Body, 403 ; 

Breathing, 404 ; The Blood, 405 ; Head and its parts, 407 ; 

Pace and its parts, 408 ; Trunk and its parts, 408 ; Arms and 

the parts, 409 ; Hand and its parts, 410 ; Leg and its parts, 

411 ; Foot and its parts, 411 ; Review, 412 ; Summary of 

the Limbs, 412 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 412. 
About the Bones of the Human Body 413-415 

Shape and Number of Bones, 413 ; Bones of the Trunk, 413 ; 

of the Arm and Hand, 414 ; of the Leg and Foot, 415. 
Organs of the Senses 416-424 

The Eyes, 416 ; Eyelids, 417 ; Parts of the Eye, 417 ; The 

Tears, 418; Eyelashes, 418; Eyebrows, 419; The Ears, 420; 

The Nose, 421 ; The Mouth, its uses and parts, 422 ; The 

Teeth, 422 ; Eating, 423 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 424. 
The Shape, Uses, and Growth of Bones 425-428 

The Skull, 425; Backbone, 425 ; Ribs, 426; Shoulder-blades, 

Collar-bones, 427; Growth of Bones, 427. 
Lessons about the Skin 429-431 

Qualities and parts of the Skin, 429 ; Color of, 430. 

MORAL TRAINING 432-442 

Ideas of God as a kind Father 435-437 

Ideas of God as the Maker of all Things 437-439 

Ideas of the Soul 440-442 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS-. 



PRINCIPLES ON WHICH OBJECT TEACHING IS 
FOUNDED. 

The first step toward a preparation for the educa- 
tional training of children should be to ascertain the 
nature of the mind, its condition in childhood, its natu- 
ral modes of development, and the processes best adaj^t- 
ed to secure a proper discipline of their faculties. When 
this is understood, it will be an easy matter to adapt 
instruction to them. As an introduction to this step, 
a few important facts may be stated as a basis for this 
educational training. 

1. Our knowledge of the material Avorld is derived 
through the senses. Objects, and the various phenom- 
ena of the external world, are the subjects upon which 
the faculties are first exercised. 

2. Perception is the first stage of intelligence. Pri- 
mary education naturally begins with the culture of the 
perceptive faculties. This culture chiefly consists in 
affording occasions and stimulants for their develop- 
ment, and in fixing perceptions in the mind by means 
of the representations furnished by language. 

3. The existence of knowledo^e in the mind besrins 
when resemblances and differences in objects are per- 
ceived. Knowledge increases in proportion to the in- 
creased ability for distinguishing resemblances and dif- 



16 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

ferences, and the capacity to classify and associate ob- 
jects, experiences, and facts that resemble each other. 

4. All the faculties are developed and invigorated by 
proper exercise ; they may be enfeebled by being over- 
tasked, or by being exercised on subjects which do not 
come 'within their proper sphere. 

5. Some of the mental powers are as active and near- 
ly as vigorous in the child as they are in the man. 
Among these are sensation, perception, observation, 
comparison, simple memory, and imagination. Other 
powers of the mind do not attain their full development 
until the child has arrived at the period of maturity. 
Among these are reason, philosophical memory, and 
generalization. 

6. The natural and most healthful incentive to atten- 
tion and the acquisition of knowledge, with children, is 
the association of pleasure with instruction. Curiosity, 
or the desire of knowledge, and the love of the wonder- 
ful, are great actuating principles of early childhood, 
and their gratification is always accompanied by pleas- 
urable emotions. Children possess a natural craving 
for knowledge as well as for occupation. Success af- 
fords them pleasure. Self-dependence is another pow- 
erful agent of culture. 

1. Instruction should give pleasure to children, and 
where it does not there is something wrong, either in 
the mode of presenting it or in the subject-matter se- 
lected for instruction. 

8. Habits of attention are permanent mainsprings of 
education. Habits are formed by the repetition of the 
same act. The great secret of securing the attention 
of children consists in arousing their curiosity, and grat- 
ifying their love of activity ; in mingling delightful as- 



PRINCIPLES. 1 7 

sociations with learning, and never overtaxing their 
j^OTvers by keeping them too long directed upon the 
same object. 

9. The natural process of education is from the sim- 
ple to the complex; from the known to the kindred 
unknown; from facts to causes — things before names; 
ideas before words ; principles before rules. 

A brief glance at the order and processes by which 
the mind gains knowledge, and at the steps to be taken 
in training the mental powers, may aid in making this 
subject of primary education more clearly understood. 
But I shall only attempt to present some of the leading 
mental powers which are employed by children in gain- 
ing knowledge, and to indicate the order in which these 
act. 

The senses furnish to the mind its means of contact 
with the external world. Through se7isations the mind 
gains 2^c'>^<^^I)i^ons from the objects around it. Percep- 
tions lead to conceptions^ or ideas, which are retained or 
recalled by memory. 

Imagination takes up the ideas formed through the 
perceptions, combines and presents them in new forms. 

Reason proceeds to investigate these ideas by more 
definite modes, Midi judgment is the result. 

Again, sensations give 2^e7xe2)tions / attention to per- 
ceptions leads to observation. By means of observation^ 
comparison, and classification of experiences and facts, 
hnowledge is attained. 

It follows, then, that the first aim of the teacher, and 
of the parent, in primary instruction, should be to cidti- 
vate in the child habits of accurate observation.^ and 
grouping together of like things. Such habits — clear 
perceptions, fixed attention, and careful observation and 



18 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

ready classification — become a guaranty for the acqui- 
sition of knowledge in after years. 

Nature suggests the true plan for accomplishing this 
desirable end in the course which the child itself pur- 
sues in the examination of the various objects which 
surround it. The instructor should fall in w4th the 
child's desire to know, and allow it to exercise its senses 
upon each new object presented to it, by seeing, feeling, 
.hearing, tasting, or smelling it, as the case may be. 
This is Nature's method of teaching, and man never has 
been able to improve it. By the use of its perceptive 
faculties on the objects around it, the child acquires a 
large stock of ideas before it goes to school. 

The teacher should begin instruction at the point at 
which the child has arrived when school-life begins, and 
lead the mind gradually forward from one degree of 
knowledge to another. She should begin with things 
that are familiar to the child, and lead it to use the 
knowledge already acquired in obtaining new ideas. 
Words and their uses will naturally succeed a knowl- 
edge of things, because language will be needed to ex- 
press the ideas derived from them. Here Nature's 
method may be perceived to be things before loords. 
If, then, we would improve the language of a child, we 
must first give it ideas, then words to enable it to ex- 
press those ideas. 

Sometimes children employ original terms to express 
their thoughts; these should be accepted, and, if faulty, 
let errors be pointed out and right words substituted. 
Whenever a new word or term is to be taught, the 
thing or idea of which the term is a sign should be 
taught first, and be understood by the pupil before the 
word is presented. In all cases let the teacher present 



PRINCIPLES. 19 

first a clear mental picture or idea of the object to her 
pupils, then its name will have a meaning which it would 
not otherwise possess, and, when used, it will call up 
a distinct conception before the mind. The opposite 
method — that of giving first the sign of the idea, and, 
as in many instances, only the sign or word — is opposed 
to the first principles of education, and its results may 
be witnessed every day m the mere word knowledge 
of many schools. 

All our ideas are primarily derived from nature ; 
books merely represent the knowledge thus obtained ; 
therefore it must be evident that books instruct us only 
so far as we are able to connect the words contained in 
them with the ideas which those words represent. Since 
ideas are not derived primarily from words, but from 
things, it follows that our teaching should begin with 
things and ideas, and lead to principles. 

No man becomes a good farmer, or carpenter, or 
painter, or engineer, or surgeon from books alone ; he 
must have observation and practice — in other words, ex- 
perietice, to make what he reads in books a living reality, 
so that words shall be to him as pictures representing 
those realities. 

If habits of accurate observation are ever attained, 
the foundation must be laid in childhood. Since chil- 
dren delight in natural knowledge — a knowledge of 
things — and since a constant impulse to know seems to 
urge them to acquire ideas of the objects about them, a 
little encouragement will lead them to employ this use- 
ful and divinely -implanted desire so that observation 
shall become a most valuable habit. Thousands of evi- 
dences exist around us proving that this noble impulse, 
if neglected or checked in childhood, becomes greatly 



20 TRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

diminislied in activity, even so far as almost to cease to 
take notice of the beauty and wonders of the world. 

From the lack of habits of observing the properties 
of common things, and deriving therefrom those lessons 
to which such observation leads, the most lamentable 
errors are committed. Without this habit nature is a 
sealed book ; the varieties of animal and vegetable life 
appear but a mass of confusion ; the stars tell no won- 
ders, mark no seasons. To remedy this, habits of obser- 
vation must be commenced in infancy, carried forward 
in youth, and confirmed in manhood. 

If we would take for our guide in education those 
laws which God has prescribed for the development of 
mind, and follow them, we must begin with things, and 
go from them to words, teaching words as representa- 
tive symbols, or signs, of the things themselves. This 
course would render the path of the learner pleasant, as 
God intended the acquisition of knowledge should be. 

The most important period in education is that sj^ent 
in the primary school. Hence those who undertake the 
charge of training children during this period should be 
especially qualified for it; they should understand the 
cultivation of the senses, and know how to teach real 
things, real forms, real colors, real sou7icls, and words to 
represent them, and how to lead the mind to correct 
conceptions. Before teaching the word cube as the 
name of an object, they should see that the child is fa- 
miliar with and can readily distinguish the form of a 
cube. Before teaching the word greeoi as the name of 
a color, they should know that the child has a distinct 
idea of the color itself Instead of teaching first the 
words rough and smooth, and then their definitions, the 
mind should be made acquainted with the sensations of 



PRINCIPLES. 21 

rough and smooth, and the words taught to enable it to 
express those sensations. If teachers will learn to carry- 
out this idea in all their primary instructions, icords and 
hooTcs will come to have a significance to the young which 
they seldom or never attain under other methods of ed- 
ucation. 

Observation teaches that the full use of our senses is 
to be acquired by suitable training. Their cultivation 
is one of the important duties of both the parent and 
the primary teacher. On this subject Miss Edgeworth 
justly remarks : 

"Rousseau has judiciously advised that the senses of 
children should be cultivated with the utmost care. In 
proportion to the distinctness of their perceptions will 
be the accuracy of their memory, and probably, also, 
the precision of their judgment. A child who sees im- 
perfectly can not reason justly about the objects of 
sight, because it has not sufficient data. A child who 
does not hear distinctly can not judge well of sound ; 
and if we could suppose the sense of touch to be twice 
as accurate in one child as in another, we might con- 
clude that the judgment of these children must difi*er 
in a similar proportion. 

"The defects in organization are not within the power 
•of the instructor. We may observe that inattention and 
want of exercise are frequently the causes of what are 
mistaken for natural defects ; and, on the contrary, in- 
creased attention and cultivation sometimes produce 
that quickness of eye and ear, and that consequent 
readiness of judgment, which we are apt to attribute 
to natural superiority of organization or capacity." 

The more we spread and enlarge these roots of knowl- 
edge by such practical means, the more rapidly the future 



22 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

tree will grow, and the more abundant and perfect will 
be the fruits thereof 

"A little child has sensations which we ourselves had, 
but which we now forget. It walks in the world as we 
might do in a new country; the sky, the changing lights, 
every class of natural objects, give rise to new sensations, 
for each of which it seeks a name, and, long before it has 
words to characterize them, it is acquainted with many 
qualities and circumstances relating to them. But its 
faculties are chiefly employed upon those things most 
closely allied to its own nature. Every thing that lives 
has a special interest ; motion invariably attracts as a 
sign of life, but it is human society and all its relations 
that come home most fully to its sympathies."* 

Whatever the child sees done he wants to know about, 
and to do ; and so great is his love of the knowledge of 
actions, that he will gladly throw aside the playthings 
which delight him. to watch his papa or mamma in op- 
erations where tools are employed. He wants to know 
about the food he eats; the uses of each article of furni- 
ture ; the uses of tools which he sees ; about his clothes 
— how they are made ; and about every thing relative 
to man, animals, and plants. In fact, his curiosity is 
insatiable, because a knowledge of these things is nec- 
essary to existence and well-being. Now it is evident 
that by taking advantage of this propensity to know, 
while gratifying a natural desire, habits of observation 
may be established, a great amount of knowledge im- 
parted, and, at the same time, the conception, compari- 
son, imagination, reason, and judgment cultivated, the 
ability for classifying and associating strengthened, and 
the foundation laid for a thoroughly practical education. 
* Young's Teacher's Manual. 



PEIXCIPLES. 23 

Books will never accomplish this; such training 
should precede books ; it is the work of the parent and 
of the primary teacher. To aid both in their endeavors 
to properly develop the minds of the children intrusted 
to their care is the design of this book. It is not ex- 
pected that these lessons will be followed literally ; but 
it is hoped that they will serve to suggest methods 
adapted to the wants of teachers and parents under the 
varying circumstances in which they may be placed, 
and lead them to instruct by system, in accordance with 
nature's laws for the acquisition of knowledge, rather 
than by mere experiments, unguided by system or law. 

No one is a master of the science of teaching until 
such skill has been attained as will give the ability, to 
quickly ascertain not only what the child knows upon 
any subject, and what portion of this knowledge is 
clearly known, what part is faintly known, but what 
steps should be taken, and their order, that the subject 
may be properly known. Furthermore, the instructor 
must be able to determine what was defective in the 
methods of teaching from their results alone, and to 
suggest readily methods adapted to correct the defects. 

When a teacher has become practically acquainted 
Avith a correct system and laws of instruction, all diffi- 
culties relative to what methods should be used in any 
given case will rapidly disappear. 

The laws of mental development are just as certain, 
and may be as clearly understood, as the laws of phys- 
ical growth. A person is no better qualified to enter 
upon the duties of a teacher without knowing these 
mental laws, and understanding a system of teaching 
in accordance with them, than one would be to under- 
take the duties of a physician who knew nothing of the 
laws of health and the philosophy of medicine. 



24 riilMAllY OJiJECT LESSONS. 



HOME TEAmmG OF THE SENSES. 

The importance of a proper cultivation of the senses 
by means of home training can not be over-estimated. 
The mind of the child has access to the material world 
only through its senses. It is through these doors and 
windows that all knowledge of the world can be ac- 
quired. These senses need cultivation by suitable ex- 
ercise to enable the mind to act through them with 
readiness and clearness. 

When no attention is given to the training of the 
senses, it often happens that some of them receive so 
little exercise that they fail to attain their full power 
of activity. Sometimes it is found that for want of 
suitable attention the sense of hearing is very imper- 
fect, and, in consequence, the child is called stupid, when 
the difficulty exists in its not having been trained to 
perceive sounds readily and clearly. This condition 
may exist with other senses, and the child be considered 
dull, and slow to learn, simply in consequence of not 
having been trained to use its senses properly. 

During the period of home training all the senses 
should receive due attention — smelling, tasting, and 
feeling, as well as seeing and hearing. It is esjDCcially 
important that the senses of smelling, tasting, and feel- 
ing should be carefully trained at home, since the op- 
portunities are very limited for their cultivation in 
school, where the exercises chiefly pertain to seeing and 
hearing:. 



HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 25 

The prominent characteristics of early childhood 
should be carefully observed, and plans adapted for 
home training in accordance with them. Among these 
characteristics will be found activity, a fondness for 
handling things, and a desire to try to do what older 
persons do. No better training can be given to the 
child, before it is old enough to go to school, than to 
furnish the means to enable it to exercise these charac- 
teristics in such a manner as to lead to a proper train- 
ing of the several senses. 

The opportunities for such home training are of daily 
occurrence. Favorable circumstances for such exer- 
cises should be seized whenever and wherever they 
arise, in the kitchen, dining-room, parlor, garden, field, 
or the street. Wherever they go, children might thus 
be trained to observe, and to acquire knowledge, and 
find entertainment. 

Where there are two or three children in the family, 
it will be often found desirable to arrange exercises by 
which they can join in these sense-training lessons. 

The following lessons are presented to suggest meth- 
ods for arranging exercises for home training of the 
senses. Other plans mnj be devised by the parent 
that would be equally useful, should the end to be at- 
tained be kept properly in view. 

EXERCISES EOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 

The sense of sight may be cultivated by distinguish- 
ing shapes of objects, or their size, length, width, color, 
etc. Any plans by which shapes, sizes, lengths, widths, 
or colors may be compared by children will aid in the 
training of this sense. 

B 



26 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Rapid Vision. — Let a child be led tlirough a room, 
and then requested to tell what it saw in the room. 
Repeat this, and let it tell what other objects it saw. 

Let children stand before a shoj) window for a min- 
ute, and afterward tell what they saw. 



EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF HEARING. 

To distinguish Objects by their Sound. — Let a bell, a 
tumbler, and a bowl be struck lightly with a table-knife, 
and the child led to notice the difference in their sounds. 
Then let the child turn its back toward these objects 
while each is struck again as before, and then tell which 
object is struck by its sound alone. Other objects may 
be used in the same manner, and the child trained to 
distinguish them by sounds also. 

To distinguish the Location of Objects, by Sound.— Let 
a small bell be struck ia different parts of a room, and 
children be requested to tell where the bell w^as sound- 
ed each time. It might be struck under a table, under 
a chair, near the floor, behind a child, then near the ceil- 
ing, in a box, in a closet, in a distant corner of the room. 

A child might be blindfolded, and a bell rung near it 
on one side, then far away on the same side ; then near 
behind it, then far away behind it ; then near and far 
on the other side ; then near and far in front, and the 
child required to tell in what position the bell was each 
time it was rung. 

To distinguish high, low, loud, and soft Sounds. — 
Three tumblers, each having a marked difference in 
tone, may be struck lightly, and the children required 



HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 27 

to notice the sound belonging to each. Then, while 
the eyes of the children are closed, let each tumbler be 
struck, and each child requested to tell which tumbler 
was sounded. 

In a similar manner children may be led to distin- 
guish high and low sounds. 

To distinguish loud, soft, and faint sounds, let loud, 
soft, and faint raps be made on a door, on a table, on a 
tumbler, on the wall. Each might be struck with the 
same object, then all with different objects. Finally, let 
the children distinguish which object is used for strik- 
ing by the sound produced. 

Children should also be led to imitate high and low, 
loud and soft sounds, with their voices. 

To distinguish Persons by Voice and by Footsteps.— Let 
children be trained to distinguish different members of 
the family by their voice, when they speak but a single 
word. They may also be led to distinguish the foot- 
steps of each member of the family. 

EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF TASTE. 

To distinguish common Objects by their Taste.— Let 
children taste very small portions of the following 
articles of food without seeing them, and tell what 
each is, viz. : Bread, cake, cheese, butter, meat, pota- 
to, turnip, apple, peach, grape, plum, pear, salt, sugar, 
tea, coffee, milk, water, vinegar, etc. Let them also 
learn to distinguish fruits, nuts, berries, etc., by their 
taste. 

To distinguish Sour Substances. — Let the children 



28 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

learn the taste of vinegar, lemon, sour apple, currants, 
pie-plant, etc., and then by taste alone distinguish each 
of these, and other sour substances. 

To distinguish Pungent Substances. — Let the children 
learn the taste of common pepper, spice, cloves, horse- 
radish, cinnamon, peppermint, etc., and then to distin- 
guish them by taste, without seeing them. 

To distinguish Astringent Substances. — Let children 
taste of alum, a choke-cherry, an unripe persimmon, a 
piece of oak bark, and, when they clearly distinguish the 
puckery taste, tell them that all things that taste like 
these are said to be astringent. Then let them distin- 
guish a few substances by their astringent taste, and this 
quality will be understood, and never forgotten. 

To distinguish Bitter Substances. — Children may ac- 
quire a knowledge of a bitter quality by tasting of 
gentian, myrrh, Peruvian bark, wormwood, rue, quassia, 
aloes, hops, tansy, or other bitter substances. 

To distinguish Salt and Sugar.— Place a little dry 
white sugar in one paper, and in another a little salt. 
Let the child smell of each, then feel of each, then taste 
of each. Then ask it. Do these taste alike ? Do they feel 
alike ? Do they smell alike ? Has the salt any smell ? 
Are both of the same color ? "Which do you like bettei-, 
salt or sugar? Would you like to eat as much salt as 
you do of sugar ? How can you tell which is sugar ? 



HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 29 



EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF SMELL. 

1. Place successively before the child several objects, 
and let it tell what they are without seeing or feeling 
them, as cheese, coffee, onion, turnip, a rose, a pink, a 
ripe apple, an orange, vinegar, leather, sugar, etc. 

2. A variety of flowers may thus be placed succes- 
sively before the nose of a child, and it requested to 
tell the name of each. 

3. The children should be led to notice objects that 
they can not smell, as salt, glass, alum, iron, etc. 

4. Arrange substances possessing strong odors, as 
cami^hor, peppermint, cinnamon, cologne, onion, and let 
the children tell their names without seeing them. 

EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 

To distinguish Objects by Touch. — Place in a small bag 
several objects, as marbles, tops, knife, buttons, cents, 
pencils, key, pieces of cloth, and paper ; then request a 
child to put its hand in the bag, take hold of one object, 
then tell what it is, without seeing it, and before remov- 
ing it from the bag. When the name has been given 
by the child, the object may be taken out, and, if the 
right name was given, the child may keep the object, 
and draw another in the same manner. Should the 
Avrong name be given, the object must be returned to 
the bag. 

Where there are two or more children, they may take 
turns, each naming and drawing out one object. When 
a child makes a mistake in naming it, the object must 
be returned to the bag, and that child should wait until 



30 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

each of the other children have guessed the name of an 
object and drawn it from the bag before it draws an- 
other. When all the articles have thus been drawn 
from the bag, each child may count them, and see which 
has drawn out the greatest number. 

Lumps of sugar, salt, and pieces of stone and wood 
may be placed in tlie bag, and the children requested 
to distinguish each by feeling, as before. 

Children may hold their hands behind them, and a 
small object be placed in one hand of each, and they be 
requested to tell the name of it. 

Let a child be blindfolded, and try to tell the names 
of articles placed on a table before it by touching them. 

To distinguish Persons by Touch. — When several chil- 
dren are together, one may be blindfolded, and then try 
to distinguish the others by feeling of their clothes and 
hands. Let a child try to distinguish the members of 
the family by feeling of their hands, then by feeling of 
their faces. 

To distinguish Coins by Touch. — Place several coins in 
a small bag or in a pocket, as one-cent, two-cent, three- 
cent, and five-cent pieces, and let the child distinguish 
them by feeling. Each coin may be drawn from the 
bag or pocket after its name has been given, but it 
must be returned when the wrong name is given. 

To distinguish Grains by Touch.— Several kinds of 
grain may be put into different bags, as wheat, oats, 
peas, corn, beans, etc., and the child requested to tell 
the name of each kind by feeling it. 



HOME TRAINING OP THE SENSES. 31 

To distinguish Rough and Smooth Objects. — Arrange 
several articles that differ in smoothness and rough- 
ness, as pieces of silk, cotton, and woolen cloth, brown 
paper, writing-paper, rough and smooth pieces of wood, 
pieces of stone, metals, etc., and request the children 
to select the smooth articles, and place them in one 
grou23, and the rough articles, and j)lace them in an- 
other group. 

To distinguish Hard and Soft Substances. — Arrange on 
a table several substances, as cork, pine, oak, lead, cop- 
per, iron, stone, glass, leather, rubber, and let the chil- 
dren selectj by feeling, the three softest articles, also the 
three hardest. 

Let them select all that are softer than lead, and place 
them on the left side of it; then all that are harder than 
lead, and place those on the right side of it. 

Place several substances before the children, and let 
them ascertain, by scratching each with a piece of cop- 
per, which are harder than copper, and which are softer 
than copper. 

To distinguish Warm and Cold Substances. — Arrange 
several substances on a table, as cotton, linen, and wool- 
en cloth, different kinds of wood, stone, lead, iron, glassi, 
and let the children touch each, and say which they 
think feel cold, and which warm. 

To distinguish Size of Objects by Touch. — Place three 
objects, differing but little in size, in the hands of a 
blindfolded child, and request it to select the largest one. 

Place objects of the same shape and size, and objects 
of the same shape but of different size, in a bag, and let 



32 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

children select and draw out two of the same size, then 
two of a different size. 

Objects of different shapes, but of nearly the same 
size, may be placed in the same bag with the last lot, 
and the child led to select like sizes, then like shapes, 
then like shape and size. 

The sense of touch may also be improved by allowing 
children to compare the thickness of objects by feeling, 
as a thick and a thin book, a thick and a thin piece of 
paper or piece of cloth, a thick and a thin stick, a large 
and a small string. 

To distinguish Leaves by Touch. — Encourage children 
to learn the feeling of different kinds of leaves, and of 
the blades of grass and grains. They may be requested 
to distinguish these by touch alone. 

The exercises already mentioned will suggest a va- 
riety of methods for training the sense of touch. And, 
in addition to those now given, children should be 
trained to distinguish substances that are slippery, 
sticky, light, heavy, etc. On all suitable occasions 
they should be allowed to touch different objects, and 
to tell how they feel. But care should also be taken 
to secure a ^:>?'ope?' training in discriminating lohat and 
when they should not touch. 

HOME EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE HAND. 

Let the children open and shut their hands; shut all 
the fingers of the right hand except the forefinger and 
thumb; then the same of the left hand ; then all except 
a little finger on each hand ; then all but the little fin- 
ger and the forefinger, etc. 



HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 33 

Balancing'. — Let children try to balance small objects 
on the tip of a finger, as a cent, a pencil, a pocket-knife, 
sticks, etc. 

Tying Knots. — Let children learn to tie a simple knot 
in a single string ; then a simple knot with two strings 
side by side; then to join two strings together by a 
square knot ; then two strings may be united by a loop- 
knot. Children should also be taught to tie single and 
double bow-knots, such as are used in tying their shoe- 
strings, also their neck-ties. 

Doing up Parcels. — Children may be taught to tie up 
small parcels neatly, as books, pieces of cloth, a few 
pebbles or beans ; also sand, peas, or small grains, in 
parcels of a conical shape, such as grocers use. 

Cutting and Folding Paper. — Let children be shown 
how to cut and fold papers to form 'small boxes, boats, 
hats, baskets, garments, houses, etc. ; also folding slips 
of paper for lighting candles or gas. 

Cat's Cradle is a good game for exercising the fingers 
of children. 



' HOME TRAINING IN FORM. 

Ideas of form may be developed by means of the toys 
furnished for the child's amusement at home. For this 
purpose a box of cubes and a box of brick-shaped blocks 
should be supplied. The brick-shaped blocks should be 
made of some hard wood, as cherry or maple, and be 
about four inches long by two inches wide, and one 
B2 



34 



PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



incli thick. The child can soon be taught to pile them 
up, break joints in imitation of brick-work. For a boy 
of two or three years of age no toys can be furnished 
that will afford more amusement, and continue for so 
long a time to occupy his attention without apparent 
fatigue. When the boy has played with these blocks 
for a few weeks, it will astonish one to notice the vari- 
ety of square and oblong structures, towers, pyramids, 
bridges, arches, gateways, walls, forts, chimneys, etc., 
that he will construct with them. 

Crandall's building blocks also serve a similar pur- 
pose of amusement and observation in shape. These 
are made so that the different pieces may be joined to- 
gether at the ends, and the structure may be carried 
about without falling to pieces. 

A toy known as a Chinese puzzle, or tangram, rep- 
resented below, will also be found useful in this home 
training in form. The tan- 
gram may be made of paste- 
board, or wood, or metal. 
It consists of seven pieces, 
as seen in the accompanying 
illustration representing it in 
the form of a large square. 
On the opposite page may 
be seen two squares formed 
with the same pieces. 

With the seven pieces that constitute the tangram 
many hundred figures may be constructed. First 
the child should be directed to form tlie two small 
squares; afterward the large one. When it can form 
these readily, various outlines of figures may be given 
to be imitated by arranging the several pieces. In ad- 




HOME TEAINING OF THE SENSES. 35 





The Chinese TaBgram. 



dition, other forms may be arranged according to the 
child's fancy. It is said that the tangram was one of 
the amusements of Napoleon. 

On the following page are a few of the figures that 
may be arranged from the tangram. 

HOME TRAINING IN COLOR. 

To distinguish Colors. — Let the children arrange 
pieces of silk, ribbon, cloth, paper, or worsteds, of vari- 
ous colors, in groups of red colors, blue colors, green 
colors, yellow colors, purple colors, without any distinc- 
tion of light and dark reds, blues, etc. 

To name the principal Color of Objects. — Let the chil- 
dren name the principal colors in their articles of dress, 
in objects about the room, as carpets, mats, etc. 

To arrange Flowers of like Colors. — In the summer en- 
courage children to notice the colors of flowers ; also 
to arrange together flowers of like colors. 

To arrange Colors in Order. — Place colors in order, as 
red, orange, yellow, blue, green ; or green, red, orange, 
blue, and let children arrange colors in the same order. 



36 



PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 









Chicken. 



Fruit-dish, 




Goose. 





. — 

\ 


<! 




/-' 


1 


'" 



Chinaman. 



Man in a Boat. 



HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 37 



HOME TRAINING IN NUMBER. 

First Steps in Counting. — Teach children to count 
their fingers, to count marbles, apples, nuts, buttons, 
blocks, cents, pebbles, chairs, and other objects, as far 
as ten, in order. Let them walk and count their steps. 

They should also count trees, cows, sheep, horses, 
panes of glass in a window, steps in stairs, etc. 

After becoming familiar with counting to -ten, let 
them be taught to count as far as twenty. Care should 
be taken to teach children counting of objects before 
they are allowed to learn counting by rote. 

Lead them to notice the resemblance between one, 
two, three, four, five, etc., and twenty-one, twenty-two, 
twenty-three, twenty-four, twenty-five, etc. 

One evening, TNfhen my little girl could read only a 
few simple words, she came to me with an arithmetic, 
and asked, " What are these ?" at the same time point- 
ing to a group of figures arranged as follows : 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


1 


8 


9 


10 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


1 


8 


9 


10 



Requesting her to hold up one finger, I pointed to the 
1, and said, "That is IhQ figure oiie^ Then asking her 
to hold up two fingers, I pointed at 2, and said, " That 
is figure twoP After proceeding in this manner as far 
as the 4, 1 began at 1 again, pointing at the figures, and 
saying, " Figure 1, figure 2, figure 3, etc. See, this is 
the way you count ; and the names of these figures are 
what you say when you count one^ two, three, four^ etc." 
As I came to the 4 this time, she com23rehended the re- 
lation between the figures and counting, and at once 



38 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

pointed out and named 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. In less than 
fifteen minutes she could name either of these figures 
in any order. This was her first lesson. In a few days 
I requested her to place in groups as many pieces of 
money as each figure represented. 



OTHER HOME EXERCISES. 

Children should be supplied with a variety of attract- 
ive and instructive games and puzzles for home amuse- 
ment, as " fox and geese," " garrison game," " solitaire," 
"checkers," "Jack-straws," etc. And for out-of-door 
sports, top, kite, bat and ball, hoops, croquet, sleds, 
skates, etc. Such games, puzzles, and amusements as 
lead children to habits of quick perception, or give skill 
to the eye, ear, or hand, when properly participated in, 
tend to develop the powers of both mind and body. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

Teachers will find many children in school who have had no home 
training of the senses, and who seem to have made but little progress 
toward a ready use of these powers which God gave them, that they 
might learn what is in this world into which they have come to dwell. 

To prepare such children for a proper introduction to the lessons of 
school, the teacher will need to perform much of the work of training 
which ought to have been done by the parent, and in such cases 
many of the foregoing exercises for home training will suggest meth- 
ods that may be used for similar Avork in school. Language can not 
be understood until pupils have been taught to observe their sensa- 
tions. 



INTEODUCTOEY SCHOOL LESSONS. 39 



INTEODUCTOKY SCHOOL LESSONS 

FOR CULTIVATING OBSEEVATION AND THE USE OF LANGUAGE. 



CONVERSATIONAL EXERCISES. 

The child's first school lessons should be conversa- 
tional, and imparted in the simplest manner, with an 
aim to avraken^the mind, develop habits of observation, 
and train pupils in the use of language. This work 
should be preparatory to a more definite knowledge of 
form, color, number, and of printed words. 

That subject in which the child manifests the great- 
est interest is the one about which the conversations 
should commence, and indicates the point where that 
child's instruction should begin. As the lessons pro- 
ceed, the interest in that particular subject may be 
made the key-note for drawing attention to other sub- 
jects having a kindred interest. 

Conversations about things at home — every -day 
things — will usually prove interesting. These lessons 
should be conducted without formality. The children 
may be led to talk about the things which they daily 
see, and use, or wear, and to ask and answer questions ' 
concerning them. Those subjects should be chosen at 
first that are very simple, and with which both children 
and teacher are familiar. 

1. Suppose the teacher's first conversation with the 
children be about a cat : let her ask how many feet a 



40 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

cat has ; how many ears ; what a cat does ; what a cat 
is good for. Encourage them to talk about their cat. 
Similar inquiries may be made about a dog. Care 
should be taken to encourage children to tell about 
whatever thing may form the topic for conversation. 

2. They may be led to talk about their playthings, 
and tell what they have, and what they do with them, 
and who gave them their playthings. 

3. As children are fond of telling what they have 
seen, let them tell what they saw on their way to school; 
what birds they have seen; what animals they have seen, 
and where they saw them. 

4. After a few familiar conversations of this kind. 
which win confidence and remove restraints upon the 
expression of their thoughts, let them be led a little far- 
ther, and asked to name some objects that have a com- 
mon use ; as, what things are used to sit upon ? " Chair, 
sofa, stool, bench," probably would be the reply. Ask 
where they sit upon sofas, where on chairs, where on 
stools, where on benches. 

5. What things are worn on the hands? "Mitts, 
gloves, mittens, rings, muffs." Who wear mitts ? Who 
wear gloves? When are mittens worn? How are 
rings worn ? When are muffs used ? 

6. What things are worn on the feet? "Stockings, 
slippers, shoes, boots, overshoes." Why are stockings 
worn? When are slippers worn? Who wear shoes? 

»Who wear boots ? When are overshoes worn ? What 
else is worn on the feet ? 

7. What things are worn on the head ? " Cap, hat, 
bonnet." Who wear hats ? Who wear bonnets ? Do 
girls wear caps ? 

8. What things can you see in the schoolroom that 



INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSOXS. 41 

are made of wood ? " Chair, bench, table, desk, floor." 
For what is the table used ? For what are the desks 
used? Do you think the scholars could walk in the 
schoolroom without a floor ? What, then, is its use ? 
. 9. \Yhat things are seen in the sky? "Sun, moon, 
stars, clouds, rainbow." When may you see the sun? 
Point where the sun is in the morning. Point where 
the sun is at sunset. When do you see the moon ? 
Can you see the moon every night ? Can you see more 
than one moon ? Can you see more than one star at 
one time ? Do you see the stars in the daytime ? When 
can you see clouds ? Did you ever see a rainbow ? 

10. Tell me the names of some articles of dress. 
" Coat, vest, pantaloons, gown, apron." Do girls wear 
coats and vests ? Who wear pantaloons ? Who wear 
aprons ? Who wear gowns ? Of what are coats made ? 
Of what are gowns made ? Are vests made of calico ? 
Are aprons made of cloth like that used for coats ? 

In conducting these Conversational Exercises, care 
should be taken to select at first those things with 
which the children are familiar, and not to lead them 
to observe things which are beyond their comprehen- 
sion. The course may be pursued for some time, grad- 
ually taking uj) subjects which require a wider range 
of observation, as the pupils become more capable of 
telling what they have seen, and thus they may be led 
to a more thorough and definite knowledge of all the 
ordinary objects around them. 

Exercises of this character are especially adapted to 
children that have not learned to read ; and they may 
be introduced with profit in immediate connection with 
their reading lessons. They are also appropriate to in- 
troduce as occasional exercises, for variety, or to fill up 



42 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

the time usually devoted to a lesson, which, from some 
cause, has not occupied the full time assigned to it. 

The following notes of conversations will suggest 
some of the methods that may be used in this class of. 
lessons. 



CONVERSATION ABOUT A KNIFE. 

Teacher (holding a pocket-knife before a class, says). 
What is this ? 

Children. "A knife." 

T. What can I do with it? 

C. '' Cut with it ; whittle ; make things." 

T. I have now closed the knife ; can I cut with it 
now? 

C. " No ; you must open it." 

T. How do people carry a knife of this kind ? 

C. "In a pocket." 

T, Did you ever see any other kind of knife ? 

(7. "Yes ; a dinner-knife, a table-knife, a tea-knife." 

T. Which is longer, the dinner-knife or the pocket- 
knife? 

a "The dinner-knife." 

T, What do we do with a dinner-knife ? 

C. "Eat with it." 

T. Is the dinner-knife good to use in whittling ? 

C. " No ; it is not sharp." 

CONVERSATION ABOUT A CAP. 

Teacher (showing a boy's cap to the class). What is 
this? 



INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSONS. 43 

Children. " A cap." 

T. What is it good for? 

C. " To wear on the head." 

T. Who wear caps ? 

C. "Boys wear them; and sometimes men wear 
them." 

T. When do men and boys wear caps ? 

C. *' When they go out of doors." 

T. Why do they wear caps when they go out of 
doors ? 

C. " To keep the head warm." 

T. Do all boys wear caps ? 

C. "No; some wear hats." 

T. What is this cap made of? 

CONVERSATION ABOUT A BALL. 

Teacher (showing the children a rubber ball, a ball of 
wood, a ball of yarn, marbles, etc.). Which of these is 
larger — the rubber ball, or the marble ? 

Children. *' The rubber ball." 

T. What is a ball good for? 

C. "To play with." 

T. What can a boy do with a ball ? 

C. " Throw it ; knock it ; bounce it." 

T. Which had you rather have, this ball of wood, or 
the rubber ball ? 

CONVERSATION ABOUT A STOVE. 

Teacher (pointing to a stove in the room, says). 
What is this ? 

Children. " A stove." 



44 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

T. What is it used for ? 

C. "To make a fire in." 

T. Why do we make a fire in it ? 

C. " To keep us warm." 

T. What do we put in the stove to make a fire ? 

C. 

T. Will the stove burn up ? 

C. " No ; it is iron." 

T. Did you ever see a stove in any other place ? 

C. "Yes; at home." 

T, What is the use of the stove at home ? 

C, " To cook with, and warm the room." 

Conversations somewhat like the foregoing might be 
had upon the following and similar subjects: 

Bread. Apple. Snow. 

Cake. Orange. Ice. 

Pie. Peach. Rain. 

Cheese. * Pear. Slate. 

Butter. Cherry. Chair. 

Milk. Plum. Table. 

Sugar. Grape. Bell. 

Fork. Spoon. Shoe. 

Horse. Cat. Cow. 

Dog. Sheep. Cart. 

The children should also be taught to tell their 
names ; the name of the street in which they live ; the 
names of their parents and of their brothers and sisters; 
the days of the week ; to know their right and left 
hands ; in what city or town they live. 

It will be observed that these simple conversational 
exercises might be extended almost without a limit ; 
also that the interest of the pupils can be awakened 



INTKODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSONS. • 45 

and kept alive by such variations as will readily sug- 
gest themselves to the ingenious teacher. Sometimes 
it might add interest to these exercises to tell the chil- 
dren beforehand what object will be talked about for 
the next lesson ; but this should be done only where it 
aifords the class additional pleasure, and with subjects 
for which the children show great interest. 

Children possess active minds; they are constantly 
changing from one thing to another, and it must not be 
expected that they can consider a subject for a consid- 
erable length of time, as older persons do, or that they 
would think much about a lesson, should they be told 
what it will be, before they are called upon to talk about 
it, especially if they do not manifest more than ordinary 
interest in it. It requires skill on the part of the teacher 
to keep up a lively interest, even during a class exercise, 
when the subject has all the attraction of novelty. 

The teachers who possess tact^ and an enthusiastic 
love of their work, will succeed. Such teachers will 
derive most benefit from these suggestions, and upon 
them must chief reliance be placed for a successful in- 
troduction into our schools of methods for cultivating 
habits of accurate observation, and more thorough 
training of the mental powers through the processes 
of acquiring knowledge. 

The importance of cultivating such habits in child- 
hood, and the consequent love for nature, are beautiful- 
ly expressed in the following words from an article on 
the " Cultivation of the Perceptive Faculties," by Prof. 
William Russell, published in Barnard'' s Journal of 
Education : 

" The * pliant hour' must be taken for all processes of 
mental budding, grafting, or pruning, as well as in those 



46 PlilMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

of the orchard. An early dip into the study of nature 
will serve to saturate the whole soul with a love for it 
so strong as to insure the prosecution of such subjects 
for life. The season is auspicious ; the senses are fresh 
and susceptible ; the mind is awake ; the heart is alive ; 
the memory is retentive ; nature is yet a scene of nov- 
elty and delight ; and application is a pleasure. The 
twig may now be bent in the direction in which the 
tree is to be inclined." 



HABITS OF THINKING AND SPEAKING PROMPTLY. 47 



EXERCISES FOR TRAINING IN 

HABITS OF THINKmG AND SPEAKING 
PKOMPTLY, 

AND A CORRECT USE OP LANGUAGE. 

It is of great imfportance to have children trained to 
think quickly, and speak promptly, and use language 
correctly. Exercises suitable for pupils during their 
first and second years of school attendance ought to be 
introduced into every primary school, for the attain- 
ment of these habits. Such training might properly 
succeed the " Conversational Exercises." 

The following descriptions of methods will suggest 
means by which skillful teachers may accomplish this 
desirable object, and also lead children to notice their 
sensations. 

What I can See. — Request each child, in turn, to stand 
up quickly and tell the name of something that it can 
see in the class-room, as : "I can see the blackboard ;" 
" I can see the table ;" " I can see a chair ;" " I can see 
a piece of chalk ;" " I can see a book ;" " I can see my 
teacher." 

The pupils should be so trained that no time will be 
lost between the sitting down of one child and the get- 
ting up of the next. Each child should be trained to 
speak instantly after rising, or sit down, and the next 
pupil take the turn. 

After a few days the pupils may be allowed to men- 
tion the names of things that they have seen out of 



48 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

school, as: "I saw a horse;" "I saw a wagon;" "I saw 
a cow;" "I saw a car;" "I saw a bird." This exercise 
should teach pupils not to say "I seen." 

What I can Hear. — " I can hear my teacher speak ;" 
" I can hear the bell ;" " I can hear a piano ;" " I can 
hear a wagon ;" " I can hear a car ;" " I can hear Lucy 
speak." 

Subsequently the pupils may be "requested to tell 
what they have heard, as : "I heard a bird sing ;" " I 
heard a fire-bell;" "I heard a mouse nibbling;" "I 
heard a lady singing," etc. 

What I can Taste. — " I can taste an apple ;" " I can 
taste an orange ;" " I can taste a peach ;" " I can taste 
candy ;" " I can taste pie ;" " I can taste a banana ;" " I 
can taste bread," etc. 

This exercise may be changed, and the pupils required 
to tell what they can eat, as : "I can eat meat ;" " I can 
eat cheese ;" " I can eat cake ;" " I can eat pie ;" " I can 
eat an apple," etc. 

What I can Smell. — " I can smell an orange ;" " I can 
smell cheese ;" " I can smell an apple ;" " I can smell 
an onion ;" " I can smell wintergreens ;" " I can smell 
peppermint;" "I can smell camphor;" "I can smell 
cinnamon," etc. 

What I can Feel. — " I can feel my book ;" " I can feel 
my slate;" "I can feel my pencil;" "I can feel my 
finger ;" " I can feel my hair ;" " I can feel a chair ;" " I 
can feel ice ;" " I can feel water ;" " I can feel the wind," 
etc. 



HABITS OF THINKING AND SPEAKING PROMPTLY. 49 

What I can Do.—" I can talk ;" " I can read ;" " I can 
play ;" " I can walk ;" " I can run ;" " I can jump ;" " I 
can sing;" "I can spell;" "I can juni]) the rope;" "I 
can play ball ;" " I can skate ;" " I can ride on a horse ;" 
" I can ride in a wagon ;" " I can sweep ;" " I can sew ;" 
" I can wash dishes ;" " I can wash my face and hands ;" 
" I can comb my hair," etc. 

Where I can Go. — " I can go to school ;" " I can go to 
church ;" " I can go home ;" " I can go to the grocery 
store;" "I can go to the baker's;" "I can go to mar- 
ket;" "I can go to the park;" "I can go to a shoe 
store ;" " I can go to my cousin's ;" " I can go to my 
uncle's ;" " I can go to my grandmother's ;" " I can go 
in the country," etc. 

How I can Go.—" I can walk to church ;" " I can walk 
to school ;" " I can run to the store ;" " I can ride in a 
stage to my cousin's ;" " I can ride in a horse-car to my 
uncle's ;" " I can ride in a steam-boat to my grandmoth- 
er's." 

What I would like to Have. — " I would like to have a 
new book ;" " I would like to have a pair of new shoes ;" 
" I would like to have a new dress ;" " I would like to 
have some candy ;" " I would like to have my dinner ;" 
" I would like to have a watch ;" " I would like to have 
a new knife," etc. 

What I can Wear. — " I can wear a hat ;" "I can wear 
a cap ;" " I can wear a coat ;" " I can wear shoes ;" " I can 
wear boots ;" " I can wear a dress ;" " I can wear a shawl ;" 
'' I can wear an apron ;" " I can wear a cloak," etc. 

C 



50 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

The teacher may arrange similar exercises, by which 
the pupils will tell what they do not like to see ; what 
they do not like to hear; what they do not like to 
taste ; what they do not like to smell ; what they do 
not like to feel; what they do not like to do; where 
they do not like to go, etc. 

It would also be well for the teacher to ask the chil- 
dren to tell the names of some things that they can not 
see; of some that they can not hear; of some that they 
can not taste ; of those they can not smell ; of those 
they can not feel ; also to tell what they can not do, 
and where they can not go. 

These or similar exercises might be used occasion- 
ally with profit during the first two year^ of school at- 
tendance. 



FORM. 

Form and Color are the two proj)erties of objects 
which are the most distinctive to children. Both ap- 
peal to the sight, and are early and generally recog- 
nized. Both apj)ear in great variety every where, and 
therefore afford ample scope for training children in ob- 
servation. These properties should receive an impor- 
tant place in the course of primary instruction. 

Children learn to group objects of like shapes accu- 
rately more readily than they do those of like colors. 
The young child learns to distinguish objects chiefly 
by their ybn?z5. It is this property, in its simplest con- 
ceptions, which attracts the attention of very young 
children to the things about them. By means of the 
resemblances and differences in the shape of those ob- 
jects that are repeatedly brought before the eyes of a 
young child, it learns to distinguish the spoon from the 
cup, the knife from the fork, the plate from the bowl, 
the chair from the table, the cap from the hat, the glove 
from the muff, the boot from the shoe, the book from 
the slate, the cat from the dog, the horse from the cow, 
the sheep from the pig, long before it has acquired a 
knowledge of the other properties of these objects. 

Form is the most suitable quality with which to com- 
mence lessons for training children to observe with 
careful attention and accuracy the distinguishing j)roj)- 
erties of objects. Ideas of shape may be represented 
by clear and simple descriptions and definitions, conse- 
quently these ideas may be easily made subjects of 



52 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

early instruction, as well as a means of discipline in 
habits of accurate observation. 

Experience shows us that it is better to commence 
lessons on objects by teaching each conspicuous prop- 
erty separately, so that a distinct impression shall be 
made, and the idea of the given property understood, 
before the child is required to recognize several prop- 
erties in combination. 

Among the early perceptions of children are those 
of form, color, sound, number, size, motion, taste, cold, 
and heat. Each of these should receive due attention, 
but none of them is so well adapted for training young 
pupils to notice every thing which they see outside of 
the schoolroom as form. Perhaps the next in order of 
adaptation are color, sound, number, size, and motion. 

To teach the names of forms may be deemed some- 
what arbitrary, yet it is far less so than to teach chil- 
dren the letters before teaching them words. By exer- 
cising a little skill in illustrating each shape with a va- 
riety of objects, diagrams on cards and on the black- 
board, and teaching its name after its form is clearly 
recognized, these lessons will prove attractive and in- 
teresting even to young children. 

In all the lessons on form several objects should be 
associated with each shape taught, by requiring the 
children to recognize the shape in objects about the 
room, and to mention others that they have seen which 
resemble the given form. 

It does not produce a proper development of the 
powers of mind to show an object, and point out and 
name its shape; the child must be trained to distin- 
guish the form, and taught to use its name. Herein lie 
the principal differences between modes of teaching in 



FORM. 53 

common use. By one mode the teacher continually 
tells the pupils, simply pouring words into their ears, 
without considering whether this is the best avenue to 
the mind, or whether the children understand the mean- 
ing of the words which are thus communicated. By an- 
other method the teacher trains the pupils to use their 
own powers of mind in obtaining knowledge, thus mak- 
ing their school education practically available through 
life. 

The mode of teaching employed by those whose main 
object seems to be telling their pupils, and expecting 
them to remember, makes the mind a passive recipient 
of words, like a bag being filled ; and it leaves the mind 
almost as incapable of adding more knowledge to its 
stores, as the bag of increasing its own contents. The 
other method of teaching trains all the powers of the 
mind to greater activity, and thus accustoms children 
to observe more carefully every thing around them, 
and leads them to acquire knowledge in such a manner 
that it becomes most practically useful to them in after 
life. 

Methods of teaching the lessons on Form properly 
will lead unconsciously to the use of better modes of 
instruction in other subjects. The teacher who care- 
fully observes the spirit of these lessons on form^ and 
acquires skill in presenting them, Avill teach reading 
and writing, arithmetic and geography, better, because 
of the influence of these lessons on both teacher and 
pupils. 

Very little importance should be placed on repeating 
the names of forms, but a great deal upon the actual se- 
lection and classification of the objects by their differ- 
ent shapes. It is the seeing^ comparing^ and grouping 



54 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

that perfects knowledge in this department of educa- 
tion ; not the repetition of names merely. All of these 
should be combined; the child should be led to see, 
taught to compare^ trained to do, and required to tell 
what it sees and does. 



APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM. 

Whenever the lessons are commenced for teaching the names of 
forms, there should be provided a box* containing plane forms, as 
triangles, squares, polygons ; and solids, as sphere, spheroid, cone, co- 
noid, ovoid, cylinder, cube, pyramids, etc. , etc. There should also be 
Chartsf to illustrate the lines and forms. In the absence of any bet- 
ter apparatus for illustrating form, the plane figures may be cut from 
pasteboard, and the solids from potatoes or turnips ; and the lines 
might be drawn on the blackboard. But models of the regular'i^or?«s 
and Solids are indispensable in teaching children correct ideas of their 
respective shapes. 

The following diagrams are intended to illustrate, in their appro- 
priate groups, such shapes of lines, plane forms, and solids as the 
teacher will have occasion to use in the course of lessons on Form 
given in the succeeding pages. 



Shapes of Lines, 



straight line. 

Curved liue. 



/ \ 




Crooked liue. Wave line. Spiral line. 

* A box of "New Forms for Object Teaching" has been manufactured ex- 
pressly for this new edition by Messrs, J. W. Schermerhorn & Co., New York. 

t " Charts of Lines and Forms" have been prepared for illustrating the 
lessons on this subject by Mr. Calkins, and published by Harper & Brothers. 



FOKM. 

Position of Lines. 

Horizontal line. 



5S» 



Slanting Vertical 

line. line. 



Perpendicular 
line. 






Parallel lines. 



O 



Karnes of Lines in other Positions. 



./ 



Diameter. 



Circumference. Arc. 

Shapes of Corners. 



Kadius. 




Sharp corner. Square corner. Blunt corner. Round corner. 

Karnes of Angles. 



Acute angle. 



Right angle. 



Obtuse angle. 



5G PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Plane Forms icith Three straigltt Sides. 






Equilateral 
triangle. 



Right-angled 
triangle. 



Isosceles 
triangle. 





Obtuse-angled triangle. Scalene triangle. 

Plane Forms with Four straight Sides. 




'i! 





Square. 



Oblong. 



Rhomb. 




Rhomboid. 



Trapezium. Trapezoid. 

Plane Forms loith ^iuany straight Sides. 






Pentagon. 



Hexagon. 



Heptagon. 




Octagon. 





Nonagon. 



Decagon. 



FORM. 

Plane Forms icith curved Sides. 



57 






Circl 



Ellipse. 



Oval. 





King- Crescent. Curved triangle. 

Parts of Pkme curved P'ortns. 



Semicircle. 



Quadrant. Segment. 

Solids. 



Secto) . 




Cube. 



Triangular prism. Square prism. 





Hexagonal prism. Square pyramid. Triangular pyramid. 







Sphere. Hemisphere. Prolate Spheroid. Oblate Spheroid 

C2 



58 



PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 






Ovoid. 



CyiiuUer. C 

GONIGRAPH. 



Couoid. 



The gonigraph is a small instrument resembling somewhat a jointed 
carpenter's rule, but made so as to bend in only two directions. It is 
made with several short rulers, or joints of iron or brass, fastened to- 
gether by pivots. "With it may be formed all the geometrical figures 
that consist of straight lines and angles, some of which are illustrated 
by the accompanying engravings : 





Square. 



Rhomb. Triangle. 



Parallelogram. 




v=y 



Octagon. 



Pentagon. 



LESSONS ON FOKM. 59 



LESSONS ON FOEM: 

WHEN TO TEACH THEM.— WHICH FIRST. 

To know what to teach, hoio to teach, and when to 
teach are the chief wants of the instructor. Especially 
is this the condition when " object lessons" are to be 
given. With a view of showing what should be taught 
fir St ^ and what should follow this in order, thus indica- 
ting when to teach a given fact or lesson, the following 
exercises on Form have been arranged in Steps. 

In all cases, each step of a subject should be taken in 
its order ^ and no exercise of a second or third step should 
be given until the pupils have been made familiar with 
the^rs^ step of that subject. However, the ^rs^ steps 
of several subjects may be taken before the second step 
of either is commenced ; and the second steps of sever- 
al subjects maybe taken before %hQ first ste^^^s of others 
are taken. This will appear plainer by the following 

ORDER OF LESSONS FOR CITY SCHOOLS. 

For the guidance of teachers in graded city schools, 
the following suggestions are given relative to the or- 
der of presenting the subjects and steps, and an ap- 
propriate time for taking up each series of lessons on 
Form. 

During the period from the time that the children 
enter school until they have read through the Primer, 
and are ready to commence reading in a First Reader, 



60 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

the First, Second, and Third Series of Lessons should 
be taken up and completed. 

The Fourth Series of JLesso7is should be taught while 
the pupils are reading in a First Reader. 

The Fifth Series of Lessons should be completed by 
the time that the pupils have read half through a Sec- 
ond Reader. 

The Sixth Series of Lessons may be given while the 
pupils are reading the last half of a Second Reader, or 
in an easy Third Reader. 



First Series of Lessons on Form. 
The First and Second Steps of Resemblances and Differences in 
Shape, pages 62, 63, 64. 

Second Series. 

First Step in Shape of Lines, pages 65, 66, 67. 
First Step in Corners, pages 80, 81, 82, 
First Step in Solids — Ball Shape, page 119. 

Third Series. 
Second Step in Shape of Lines, pages 68, 69. 
First and Second Step in Position of Lines, pages 73, 74, 75. 
First and Second Step in Plane Forms, pages 89, 90, 91. 
First step of a Cylinder, page 123. 

Fourth Series. 
Third Step in Shape of Lines, pages 70, 71, 72. 
Third Step in Position of Lines, pages 76, 77, 78, 79. 
Second Step, Angles, pages 82, 83, 84, 85, 86. 
Third Step in Plane Forms, page 92. 
First Step in Triangles, page 93. 
First Step in Four-sided Forms, pages 97, 98, 99, 100. 
First Step in Circular Forms, pages 106, 107, 108, 109. 
First Step in Plane and Curved Surfaces, pages 115, 116. 



LESSONS ON FOEM. 61 

Second Step in Solid Figures, pages 119, 120, 121. 

Second Step of Cylinder and Cone, pages 124, 125. 

First and Second Steps in Cube and Cubical Forms, pages 127, 128. 

First Step in Prisms, pages 129, 130. 

Fifth Series. 
Third Step in Angles, pages 87, 88. 
Second Step in Triangles, pages 94, 95. 
Second Step in Four-sided Forms, pages 100, 101. 
Second Step in Circular Forms, pages 109, 110. 
Second Step in Surfaces and Faces, pages 116, 117. 
Third Step in Solid Figures, page 122. 
Third Step of Cylinder and Cone, page 126. 
Second Step of Prisms, pages 130, 131, 132. 
First Step of Pyramids, pages 133, 134. 

Sixth Series. 
First and Second Steps of Many-sided Forms, pages 103, 104, 105. 
Third Step of Circular Forms, pages 111, 112, 113. 
Third Step of Surfaces and Faces, pages 117, 118. 
Second Step of Pyramids, pages 134, 135. 
Third Step of Four-sided Forms, pages 101, 102. 
Third Step of Triangles, pages 95, 96. 
Fourth Step, Radius, Quadrant, etc., pages 113, 114. 



62 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

KESEMBLANCE AND DIFFEEENCE IN 
SHAPE. 

Befoee entering scliool, children acquire some idea 
of shape ; but, in most cases, their knowledge of it is so 
imperfect that they can scarcely arrange common ob- 
jects that resemble each other in form into groups. It 
is therefore desirable that lessons should be given for 
training children to distinguish prominent resemblances 
and differences in the shape of objects, and to classify 
them by means of these distinctions. Such distinction 
and classification constitute the beginning of knowledge 
in Form. 

For these lessons the teacher should provide a vari- 
ety of suitable objects, taking care to have several that 
resemble each other in shape, as balls of wood, rubber, 
marbles, an orange, and apple; cylinder, lead -pencil, 
stick of candy, crayon, slate-pencil ; cube, box, pieces 
of an apple or other substance cut into cubes ; squares 
of wood, pasteboard, paper, soda-cracker ; oblong books, 
slates, sheet of paper ; cent, button, ring, candy, crack- 
ers or cakes ; long and narrow objects, as rule, slips of 
paper ; top, cone, cornucopia ; crescent, boy's cap, key, 
thimble, tumbler, etc. 



FIRST STEP.— SHAPE. 

The teacher might commence this lesson by holding 
before the pupils different objects, and asking the name 



LESSONS 01^^ SHAPE. 63 

of each, as : ball, orange, marble, ring, book, slate, cray- 
on, stick of candy, button, lead-pencil, cent, knife, etc. 

Next the teacher may hold up two objects that have 
the same form, and ask the children if these are alike 
in shape, as a ball and marble ; lead-penc'il and crayon, 
or stick of candy; the cent and the button; the book 
and slate, and so on. 

Afterward show the children objects that are not 
alike in form, and ask them if these are of the same 
shape, as a ball and crayon ; a stick of candy and a top ; 
a cent and a marble ; a cube and an apple. 

Then objects that are alike and those that are unlike 
may be shown, as a ball, a stick of candy, and a marble, 
and the children requested to tell which are alike. A 
ball, a cube, and a cubical box may be shown in the 
same manner ; then a cube, a square, and a soda-crack- 
er; then a cone, a cylinder, and a top. Thus various 
objects may be compared, and from these simple exer- 
cises the children be led to discriminate differences in 
their form. 

Subsequently the teacher might talk with the chil- 
dren about the shape of various familiar objects, as the 
table, chair, door, stove, cap, hat, shoe, broom-handle, 
stove-pipe, etc., and request the pupils to tell which re- 
semble each other, and which are unlike in shape. 



SECOND STEP.—SHAPE. 

The teacher may request the children to tell which 
objects are ball shape, which box shape, which door 
shape, which cent shape, and each may be placed in a 
group according to its shape, or the answers given by 
the pupils. 



64 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Next the pupils may be requested to mention the 
names of all the objects that they have seen that are 
shaped like a ball ; shaped like a lead-pencil ; shaped 
like a cent ; shaj^ed like a soda-cracker ; shaped like a 
tea-chest or box, etc. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

These introductory lessons on Form may be commenced with chil- 
dren that are beginning the first step in reading, as early as the fourth 
or fifth year of their age. When the size of the class, and other cir- 
cumstances will permit, the children should be allowed to take the ob- 
jects and arrange them into groups of similar shape. 

The exercises in each of the steps of Shape may be divided into 
several lessons. In t\\Qjirst step two or three lessons may be given in 
comparing objects that resemble each other in shape; then two or 
three lessons in comparing objects that differ in shape ; then four or 
five lessons in distinguishing objects of like shape when placed with 
others that differ in form ; then two or three lessons in comparing fa- 
miliar objects. 

In the exercises of the second step of shape from five to ten lessons 
may be given, according to the age and progress of the children. 

During these exercises, the shape as a lohole should be presented to 
the children, and no attempt made to analyze or describe the element- 
ary features of the shape. 

In Nature's school, children first learn to know things as wholes ; 
they learn to know the parts afterward. The teacher Avho would be 
successful must follow Nature's plan of instruction. 



LESSONS ON SHAPE. 



65 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

SHAPE OF LINES. 

FIRST STEP.— STRAIGHT, CROOKED, AND CURVED 
LINES. 

The teacher, holding a string, says, What have I in 
my hand? "A string." Holding it straight between 
both hands, she asks, How am I holding the string ? 
" Straight." Bringing the hands nearer each other so 
that the string hangs loosely, the teacher asks, Now 
what can you say of the string ? " It is crooked — it 
bends." 

Then, holding a gonigraph, or a rule with joints, so 
that all the joints are bent, the teacher asks, What is 
the sha^^e of this ? 




" Crooked." After making all the joints straight, she 
asks, What shape has it now ? *' Straight." 

Now the teacher may draw a crooked mark and a 
straight mark on the blackboard, thus : 




Then, taking the rule or a gonigraph, request the pupils 
to tell which mark is like the shape of the rule, as she 
holds it before them, first straight, then crooked. 



66 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Several straight marks and crooked marks may now 
be made on the blackboard, and the pupils required to 
tell the shape of each as the teacher points to them suc- 
cessively. 

Then pupils may be requested to go singly to the 
blackboard, and point to straight marks and crooked 
marks. 

Taking a slate, the teacher says, I hold a slate in my 
hand : does any part of its frame resemble the shape of 
a straight mark ? " Yes, the edges of the frame do." 

Taking up a numeral frame, she says, Does any part 
of this numeral frame resemble the straight marks ? 
"Yes, the wires, and the edges of the frame." 

Do you see any thing else in this room that has the 
same shape as the straight mark? "The edge of the 
table"— "The top of the blackboard"— " The sides of 
the door." 

Straight Lines. — I will now tell you what these 
straight marks are called. They are called straight 
lines. What are straight marks called? "Straight 
lines." What are called straight lines? "Straight 
marks." Now repeat, " Straight marks are called 
straight lines." 

Crooked Lines. — Crooked marks are called crooked 
lines^ and sometimes hrohen lines ; but you • may call 
them crooked lines. What are crooked marks called ? 
"Crooked lines." What are called crooked lines? 
" Crooked marks." 

The teacher now points to the lines on the black- 
board, and the pupils tell their names, as " straight line," 
*' crooked line," etc. 



LESSOXS ON SHAPE. 67 

"Next the pupils may be called to the blackboard to 
pohit to straight lines, crooked lines, etc. 

Curved Lines. — The teacher, holding the string so that 
it bends in the form of a curve, says, I am now holding 
this string so that it bends like a bow — alike in all parts. 
How does it bend? "Alike in all parts." 

I will now make a mark on the blackboard that shall 
bend alike in all parts. The name 
for this mark is a curved line. What 
do we call a mark that bends alike in all parts ? 

" A curved line ?" 

How does the curved line bend ? " Like a bow — 
alike in all parts." 

The teacher may now make several straight, crooked, 
and curved lines on the blackboard, and as each is 
■pointed at, the pupils may tell its name, as " Curved 
line," " Straight line," " Crooked line," etc. 

Then single pupils may be called upon to point to 
straight, crooked, and curved lines. The pupils may 
also be requested to find these shapes in objects about 
the room. 

Suppose I should pass this string around a hat, would 
it represent a straight line ? What line would it rep- 
resent ? "A curved line." 

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

It will be observed that the answers supposed to be given by the 
children in these lessons are quoted. This plan is adopted to make 
the descriptions of these exercises as short as possible, and yet main- 
tain a prominent distinction between the remarks and questions of the 
teacher and the replies of the children. It is not presumed that teach- 
ers will always ask the questions in these lessons, nor that all children 



68 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSORS. 

will give these answers. It is simply intended that these questions 
and answers may serve to illustrate how the teacher should jyroceedj 
rather than what questions should be asked and Avhat answers given. 
Each lesson ought to be so presented that the pupils shall understand 
it, and the questions should be such as to lead them to give answers 
showing that they do understand the subject. 

Where the children are quite young, it will be well for the teacher 
to give two or three lessons, each five or ten minutes long, on straight, 
and crooked, and curved marks, before introducing the term lines. 

To illustrate the terms straight, crooked, and curved, various objects 
should be used, as strings, pencil, rule or pointer, whalebone, ratan, 
wire, etc., and these shapes should be pointed out in the sides or edges 
of objects around the room. Use the terms "straight line," " crook- 
ed line," etc., only when speaking of lines ; and the single term 
"straight," "crooked," and "curved" when speaking of the shape 
of objects. Do not attempt to teach lines, as you might teach them to 
a class of older pupils in geometry, in an abstract manner. 

Request the children to mention other objects than those in the 
room in which these shapes may be seen. 



SECOND STEP.— WAVE AND SPIRAL LINES. 

Wave Line. — The teacher, after drawing a line on the 
blackboard of this shape, 



asks the children if they ever saw water when it was 
uneven, like this line. What do we call the ridges of 
water when it is uneven? "Waves." Very good; 
now, because this line is uneven, like the waves on 
water, we will call it a icave line. What kind of a line 
may we call this ? "A wave line." 

The teacher may now draw straight, crooked, curved, 
and wave lines on the blackboard, and, after the children 
can name each as it is pointed at, they may be request- 




LESSONS ON SHAPE. 69 

eel to point to each of these kmds of Imes as then* sev- 
eral names are called. 

In a small class the pupils might represent this line 
with a string, on a table. 

Spiral Lines. — After drawing a line on the blackboard 
of this shape, the teacher asks the children if 
they ever saw any thing of this shape ? Some 
will answer, "A watch-spring;" some, "The 
wire on which the bell hangs ;" others, " A 
sofa-spring ;" some, "A spider's web." The teacher 
may then tell them that when a line winds about a 
point, like this, it is called a spiral line. 

What is the shape of a watch-spring? "Spiral." 
What is the shape of the wire that holds the bell? 
" Spiral." What is the shape of some springs ? " Spi- 
ral." 

What objects have you seen that resemble this spiral 
line? "A string coiled up;" "Some spiders' webs;" 
" Springs for bells ;" " Watch-springs ;" " Some shells." 

To represent the shape of the other spiral line, the 
teacher may take a long lead-pencil, or a pointer, and 
wind a ribbon or a string around it, leaving spaces be- 
tween the ribbon or string. Showing this string wound 
around the pencil, the teacher may say. This string 
around the pencil represents another form of spiral 
lines. She may then ask them what they have seen of 
this shape. Some may answer, " Stripes on a barber's 
pole ;" some, " Vines growing around strings ;" others 
may say, "Springs made of wire for sofas." 



70 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

Thus far the attention of the children has been called only to the 
simple idea of shape of objects and lines. Now it will be proper to 
give lessons requiring attention to more minute ditferences in shape, 
which will enable the pupils to describe the shape of these lines. 
Methods for giving such lessons may be found under the "Third 
Step," on this and the following pages. 



THIRD STEP.— DESCRIPTIONS OF LINES, AND DRAW- 
ING LINES. 

Straight Line. — The teacher makes two dots or jDoiiits 
on the blackboard, and connects them by a straight line, 
thus: • 1 . She then remarks, Now I will 

make two more points the same distance aj^art, and con- 
nect them by a curved line, thus : 
N'ow I will measure each of these 
lines with this string, and ascertain 
which is longer — the straight or the curved line. I will 
tie a knot in my string, to show the length of the curved 
line ; now I will j)lace this string on the straight line, 
and you may tell me which is longer. "The curved 
line." Right. 

I will now make two more points the same distance 
apart, and connect them by a crooked line, then meas- 
ure its length. I will measure this 
crooked line Avith the string, and 
you may tell me whether it is lon- 
ger or shorter than the curved line. " Longer." 

Which is the longest line on the board ? " The 
crooked line." Which is the shortest line? "The 



LESSONS ON SHAPE. 71 

straight line." Can you make a shorter line between 
these two points than the straight line ? 

What may you say of the straight line ? " It is the 
shortest line between two j)oints." Very well ; but you 
may call the straight line the shortest distance between 
two points. What is a straight line ? 

"^ straight line is the shortest distance hetioeen two 
2Jointsy 

Does a straight line change its direction ? 

Crooked Line. — You see that all crooked Ifties bend. 
Some of them bend more in some parts of the line than 
in other j^arts of it. Do crooked lines change direc- 
tion ? 

What can you say about a crooked line? "It is lon- 
ger than a straight line ;" " It bends unevenly ;" " It 
changes its direction." 

Very well answered; you may say that a crooked 
line changes its direction and bends unevenly. What 
is a crooked line ? 

"^ crooked line is a line that changes its direction 
and bends unevenly y 

Curved Line. — What can you now say about a curved 
line? "It bends evenly;" "It bends alike in all its 
parts ;" " It changes its direction in all its parts." 

Very good. 

" A curved line is a line that bends evenly^ changing 
its direction at every part ofity 

Spiral Lines. — Look at these spiral lines, and see how 
they bend. Do they change direction in all joarts? 
Are both of these lines alike? What can you say 



72 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

about them ? " One bends around itself;" " The other 
wmds around something else." 

"yl spiral line is a line that hends around itself^ or a 
line that loitids around some other objecf^ 

Wave Line. — Can you tell me any thing about a wave 
line ? " Its shape is like Avaves." How does it bend ? 
" It bends in curves." Can you point to a wave line ? 

Drawing Lines. — You may now take your slates and 
represent^hree straight lines. Now three crooked lines. 
Now three curved lines. 

You may draw a straight line entirely across your 
slate. Now draw a curved line across your slate. 
Now draw a crooked line across your slate. Which 
is the shortest line ? Which is the longest one ? 

Describe a straight line. Describe a curved line. 
Describe a crooked line. ' You may draw spiral lines. 

Who would like to represent a straight line on the 
blackboard ? James may do it. 

Who will draw a crooked line ? I see that all of you 
Avould like to draw crooked lines. William may make 
one. 

Who can take this string and draw % curved line ? 
Hiram may try to represent the curved line. 

Henry may draw a wave line on the blackboard, and 
the rest of the class may draw this line on their slates. 



LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. 73 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

POSITION OF LINES. 

FIRST STEP.— SLANTING AND VERTICAL LINES. 
Slanting. — Taking a pointer, a ruler, or pencil, the 
teacher holds it before the class, first in an uj)right po- 
sition, then in a slanting position, requesting the chil- 
dren to notice the difference in the positions. The 
pointer may also be placed upright on the table, then 
made to lean to the right, then to the left. Then the 
teacher may ask, holding the pointer in a slanting 2)osi- 
tion^ in w^i^it position is this pointer now ? " Slanting ;" 
" Leaning." 

Placing the pointer in a leaning position, one end on 
the table, the teacher asks. In what^9C>s^^^'o?^ is the point- 
er now ? " Leaning ;" " Slanting." 

I will now make marks on the blackboard 
to represent this position, and you may call 
these marks slanti7ig lines. How many slant- 
ing lines have I made ? 

Vertical. — Taking the pointer again, the teacher holds 
it in a slanting position, then in an upright position ; 
then holds it upright with one end standing on the ta- 
ble. Now the question is asked, In what position is the 
pointer? "Standing;" "Up and down;" "Upright." 

Very good. Now I will give you another name for 
this position ; it is Vertical. What did I call this po- 
sition? "Vertical." Then vertical means the same as 
" Standing ;" " Upright ;" " Up and down." 

T) 




74 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

n I will make marks on the blackboard to repre- 
sent this position, and you may call these marks 
vertical lines. How many vertical lines did I 
make ? How many slanting lines do you see on 
the blackboard ? 
As I point at a line on the blackboard, you may tell 
me its name. " Slanting line." " Vertical line." " Ver- 
tical line." " Slanting line." 

Now you may point to a slanting line ; now to a ver- 
tical line. 

Can you stand in a vertical position? Let me see 
you try it. [All in the class stand erect.] That is Avell 
done ; you may sit down. 

SECOND STEP.— HORIZONTAL AND OBLIQUE LINES. 

Horizontal. — Again taking the pointer, the teacher 
holds it in a slanting position, then in an upright posi- 
tion, then in a lying-down position. Placing it on the 
table in an upright position, it is first made to lean far 
over, then to lie on the table. Then the children are 
asked, In what position is the pointer now? 

" Lying down." 

Taking the pointer up, the teacher holds it in various 
positions, then horizontal, and asks. In what position is 
the pointer now ? " Lying down ;" " Level ;" " Even." 
Yes, the pointer is level, like the ice on a pond, or the 
surface of water in a basin, or like the floor. You may 
call this the horizontal position. 

If you were out in a field, with the land level as far as 
you could see, the place where the sky and the earth 
seem to meet all around you woidd be called the Jiori- 
zon. Because this pointer is now in sncli a position 



LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. 15 

that its ends point to the horizon^ we call it the hori- 
zontal position. 

I will now make marks on the blackboard, and you 
may tell me in what position they are in as I point at 



them. " Vertical ;" " Horizontal j" " Slanting ;" " Hor- 
izontal;" "Slanting;" "Horizontal." 

In how many jDOsitions have I placed these lines? 
"Three." What are the names of these positions? 
" Slanting, vertical, and horizontal." 

Now you may point to a vertical line ; to a horizon- 
tal line ; to a slanting line ; to a horizontal line ; verti- 
cal ; slanting. 

Oblique. — The slanting line is sometimes called by 
another name, which means the same as slanting ; that 
name is oblique. So you may say the line is ohlique, or 
the line is slanting. If you place one end of the pointer 
on the floor, a few inches from the wall, and place the 
top of it against the wall, you would say the pointer is 
leaning. So, if you should see a tree standing so that 
its trunk is not in a vertical position, you would say the 
tree leans^ or the tree is leaning j but when you speak of 
the position of lines, call them slanting or oblique lines. 

Now you may hold your right arm in a horizontal 
position ; now in a slanting position ; now in an oblique 
position ; now in a vertical positioi;i ; now in a horizon- 
tal position; in an oblique position. Let books and 
slates be held in these same positions. 



76 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

In what position are you when standing erect? In 
what position are you when lying down ? In what po- 
sition do little boys often get when trying to learn to 
skate ? 

In what position are roofs of houses ? Why are the 
roofs made in this position ? In what positions are the 
tops of tables ? In what position is the ceiliDg ? — is 
the floor ? — are the walls of the room ? 



THIRD STEP.— PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR 
LINES. 

Parallel. — Let the teacher take two pointers, or two 
pen-holders, or two lead-pencils, and hold them before 
the children so that two end.s shall be near each other 
and the two opposite ends wide apart, as in Fig. 1 ; then 
hold them so that the other ends shall b(? wide apart, 
as in Fig. 2 ; then hold them so that both ends shall be 
the same distance apart, as in Fig. 3, requesting the pu- 
pils to observe each position. 

Now the teacher may draw lines on the blackboard 
to represent each of these positions, thus: 




Fis:. 1. Fiff. 2. Fijr. 3. 



Then pointing to the lines as in Fig. 1, the teacher 
asks, Are these line^ the same distance apart at each 
end? Pointing to the lines as in Fig. 2, the same ques- 
tion is again put. Then pointing to the lines as in Fig. 



LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. 77 

3, the teacher asks, Are these lines the same distance 
apart at both ends ? 

Now look at the cracks in the floor, and tell me 
whether two of those are the same distance apart. 
" They are." 

Then drawing lines on the blackboard in a horizontal 
position, thus : 




Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 



the teacher points to lines as represented by Fig. 4, and 
asks, Are these lines the same distance apart ? Then at 
the other lines as represented by Figs. 5 and 6, and asks 
the same question. 

N'ow the teacher may say. When two lines are side 
by side, and the same distance aj)art, like these (point- 
ing to those represented by Figs. 3 and 4), they are 
called parallel lines. The word parallel means hy the 
side of each other. 

Now look at these l^es again, and see if each two of 
them are by the side of each other. You may tell me 
how the parallel lines differ from the other lines. 
" They are the same distance apart, and the others are 
not." 

Pointing at lines as represented by Fig. 6, the teacher 
says. These lines are the same distance apart at both 
ends ; are they parallel ? 

"No; they are no.t the same distance apart in the 
middle." Very good; I will now tell you when lines 
are parallel. 

When lines are side by side, and equally distant in all 
parts, they are parallel. 



'78 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Again pointing at lines as in Figs. 3 and 4, the teacher 
asks, Why do you say these lines are parallel? 

"Because they are side by side, cmd equally distant in 
all parts.'''* 

Do parallel lines have the same direction? What 
can you see in this room that you may say are parallel ? 
Did you ever see any thing in a parallel position in the 
street ? " The car tracks." 

The teacher may draw parallel-vertical lines, paral- 
lel-horizontal lines, parallel-slanting lines, and parallel- 
curved lines on the blackboard, thus : 






What can you tell me about the shape of these lines? 
" Some are straight, and some are curved." 

What can you say of their position ? " Some are 
vertical, some are horizontal, some are oblique, and all 
are parallel." 

Are the curved lines parallel ? " Yes." 

Why do you say these curved lines are parallel? 
" Because they are side by side, and equally distant in 
all parts." Very well. 

Now could you show me parallel lines in a writing- 
book ? " Yes ; the ruled lines are parallel." 

What lines are parallel on the slate-frame ? " The 
two sides and the two ends." What lines are parallel 
in the door ? 

You may draw parallel lines on your slates. 



LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. 79 

How can you ascertain whether two lines are parallel 
or not ? " By measuring the distance between them." 



SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

It is of great importance that the two conditions in parallel lines — 
side hy side, and equally distant in all parts — be fully illustrated, and 
the pupils led to perceive these points. It is a common error for 
teachers to require their pupils to repeat the definitions found in text- 
books on Geometry somewhat as follows: "Parallel lines never meet, 
how far soever they may be produced, " By this means they fail to 
notice the two indispensable conditions mentioned above, and fail also 
to determine by observation what lines are parallel. 

These facts, that parallel lines lie in the. same plane, and "can not 
intersect each other, how far soever both ends may be extended," be- 
long to the instruction for grammar schools, and should not be intro- 
duced into the primary school. 

Perpendicular. — Sometimes another name is given to 
the vertical line. When I hold this pointer in a vertical 
position, with one end resting on the table, we may say, 
" The pointer is in a perpendicular position." Now, if I 

draw a horizontal line on the blackboard, thus, , 

and then draw a vertical line so as to 
meet the horizontal one (see Fig. 7), the 
vertical line may be called a perpendic- 
_ nlar line. 

In what position is the floor ? "Hor- 



izontal." In what position are the walls? "Vertical." 
What other name may you give for the position of 

the walls? "Perpendicular." 

The walls are perpendicular to the floor. 



80 PRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

COKNERS AND ANGLES. 

First Step.— Corners. — The teacher may take a book, 
and square and oblong forms, and, showing them to the 
children, ask. How many corners has this book ? " Four 
corners." 

How many corners has this piece of wood? "Four." 
How many corners has this ? *' Four." 

How many corners has the slate? "Four." How 
many corners has the table ? " Four." 

Showing forms with three and five corners, the teach- 
er proceeds to ask, How many corners has this? 
"Three." How many has this? "Five." And this? 
"Three." 

Now I wish you to look at this form with three cor- 
ners, and tell me whether these are like the corners of 
the book ? " They are not ; these corners are smaller." 

Taking the trapezium, the teacher asks. Are these 
corners all alike ? " No ; some are small." 

You may call these small corners that have a sharp 
point sharp corners. What may you call the corners 
that have a sharp point ? 

" Sharp corners." 

Now I will fold this piece of paper so that one cor- 
ner will be like a sharp point. What may you call this 
corner ? "A sharp corner." 

Has the table sharp corners ? " No ; they are round." 
What shape are the corners of this slate ? " Round 
corners." 



LESSONS ON" COKNERS AND ANGLES. 81 

Taking the trapezium, and showing the blunt end, 
the teacher may inquire, Has this corner a sharp point ? 
"ISTo." 

Can you think of a good name for it ? " Large cor- 
ner ;" " Dull corner ;" " Blunt corner." 

Very well ; you may call this corner with a wide 
point a hliint corner. What may we call a corner with 
a blunt point? "A blunt corner." 

Here is a form with four corners alike : you call it a — 
" Square." Right. Then you may call all corners that 
are like the corners of a square, square cojmers. What 
may we call these corners, like those of a square? 
" Square corners." 

What kind of corners has the book ? " Square cor- 
ners." What shape are the corners of this sheet of pa- 
per? "Square." 

Now I will draw lines -on the blackboard to repre- 
sent these corners, and you may tell me the names of 
each as I make it. 





,L 



What did you call the first corner ? " Sharp." And 
the second ? " Square." What did you call the third ? 
" Blunt." And what the fourth ? " Round corner." 

Which is the smallest corner? "The sharp one." 
Which corner is like those of the table ? " The round 
corner." 

What figure did I place by the square corner ? " Fig- 
ure 2." 

What figure stands by the blunt corner? "Fig- 
ure 3." 

B2 



82 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

What is the name of the corner by figure 1 ? " Sharp 
corner." 

What is the shape of the corners of the blackboard? 
" Square." What kind of corners has the door ? What 
is the shape of the corners of the panes of glass? 

Drawing Corners. — You may now take your slates 
and draw lines to represent these corners. First draw 
two sharp corners. Next draw two square corners. 
Now draw three blunt corners. Next draw one sharp 
corner. 

Now write a figure 1 at each sharp corner; a figure 
2 at each square corner; and figure 3 at each blunt 
corner. 

How many sharp corners have you drawn ? " Three." 
How many square corners ? "' Two." How many blunt 
corners ? " Three." 

You may now turn your slates, and let me look at 
the corners. I wish to see who has drawn them neatly. 

Second Step.— Angles. — The teacher may d'raw lines 
on the blackboard to represent sharp, square, and blunt 
corners — two or three of each ; then, pointing at them 
separately, request the pupils to tell what kind of cor- 
ner each represents. 

I will now take this knife and oj^en one blade a little 
way, so that the opening between the handle and the 
blade shall represent one of these sharp corners. Now 
I will open it further, and you may tell me which cor- 
ner the opening between the handle and the blade is 
like. '' The square corner." 

Opening it still further, which is it like now ? "The 
blunt corner." 



LESSONS ON CORNERS AND ANGLES. 83 

Kow which corner is it like ? " The square corner." 
Now which is it like ? " The sharp corner." 
Now look at the edge of this blade ; now at the edge 
of the knife-handle. You see that these meet so that 
the opening between them forms a point at one end. 
Sometimes it is a small point, like the sharp corner; 
sometimes it is larger, like the square corner; and 
sometimes it is a blunt point, like the blunt corner. 

Now I am going to give you a new name for these 
points, or the openings between the two lines that form 
a point. We will call them angles instead of corners. 
You may still say that the book has square corners, 
and the table round corners, and the door square cor- 
ners, and that some things have sharp corners, but we 
will call the corners made by two lines angles. What 
shall we call the corners made by two lines? 
"Angles." 

Acute- Angle. — We have names for the different kinds 
of corners, and we need names for the large and small 
angles. We will call the small angle, that 
is like the sharp corner, an acute angle, be- 
cause the word acute means sharp. 

Now you may tell me the name of the 
angle as I point to the lines on the blackboard. 
" Acute angle ; acute' angle ; acute angle." 

How many acute angles do you see on the black- 
board? "Three." 

Now you may make an acute angle with your two 
fore-fingers. 

You may point to acute angles on the "Chart of 
Lines ;" also on the blackboard. 



84 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Right Angle. — I will now draw a horizontal line on 
the blackboard, and then a perpendicular line above it, 
so that it shall stand on the middle of the horizontal 
line. How many angles have I made with these two 
lines? "Two angles." 

Are these acute angles? "No; they are both larger 
than acute angles." 

Which of these two angles is larger ? " Neither ; 
both are of the same size." 

Then you may call them equal angles. What may 
we call two angles of the same size ? " Equal angles." 
What corner are these angles like? "The square 
corner." — I will now give you a name for the 
angle that is like the square corner; it is a 
right angle. What may we call the angle that 
is like the square corner ? " Right angle." 



How did I make these equal angles ? " By drawing 
a horizontal line, and a perpendicular line to meet it." 

Very good ; when two lines are drawn so as to form 
two equal angles, these angles are called right angles. 
Now make a right angle with your two fore-fingers. 

I will now point to the angles on the blackboard, and 
you may tell their names. "Right angle ; acute angle; 
acute angle ; right angle ; right angle ; blunt angle." 

No, we do not say blunt angle ; we speak of blunt 
corners. But I will soon tell you a name for the angle 
that is like the blunt corner. 

Obtuse Angle. — You remember that we have a word 
which means the same as sharp ; what 
is that word ? "Acute." Yes ; and so 
we have another word which means the 
same as blunt; it is obtuse. Then we 



LESSONS ON COENEES AND ANGLES. 85 

may call the angle that is like a blunt corner an obtuse 
angle. What word means blunt ? " Obtuse." 

What, then, may we call the angle which is like the 
blunt corner ? " Obtuse angle." 

Now, how many kinds of angles have you learned ? 
"Three." 

What are their names ? " Acute angle, right angle, 
obtuse angle." 

Which angle is like the blunt corner ? " The obtuse 
angle ?" 

Which is like the sharp corner ? " The acute angle." 

Which is like the square corner? "The right angle-" 

Now you may point to right angles on the " Chart 
of Lines," also on the blackboard. Another child may 
point to obtuse angles on the " Chart," also on the 
blackboard. 

All of the children mayjiow make an obtuse angle 
with the fore-fingers. Now make right angles. Now 
acute ano-les. 

o 

Drawing Angles. — The pupils may now take their 

slates and pencils, and (as the teacher dictates) draw 

angles. 

Ready ! Draw an acute angle. Draw another acute 

angle. Draw a right angle. Draw another right angle. 

Draw an obtuse angle ; now another. Draw an acute 

angle. Draw an obtuse angle. 

How many acute angles have you made ? " Three." 
How many right angles have you drawn ? " Two." 
How many obtuse angles did you make ? " Three." 
Now turn your slates, that I may see how well you 

have drawn these angles. 



86 



TKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



SUGGESTIONS TOR THE TEACHER. 

In place of the knife, a pair of scissors might be used to illustrate 
the openings of different sizes, to prepare the children for the term 
angle. The gonigraph will also be found convenient for illustrating 
the lessons on angles. 

When the names of the different kinds of angles have been taught, 
it might be well to di'aw the angles on the blackboard, numbering 
each thus : 




Then draw several angles, joined together, similar to the following 




■ Nov/ request the pupils to go singly and write a figure, representing 
one of the three kinds of angles, opposite an angle of the same kind in 
the group of angles. Then they may be required to tell how many 
angles there are of each kind in the group. 

In small schools, where there are children in several grades of 
studies, as in the ungraded schools in the country, it would be well for 
the teacher to provide several small sticks, and give two to each of the 
younger pupils, after they have taken these lessons on angles, and re- 
quest them to make angles with them. This might prove to be the 
most interesting part of the lesson, and be the means of saving the in- 
struction that had just been given. Besides, teachers often find diffi- 
culty in keeping the younger pupils profitably occupied. This plan 
might furnish a profitable and interesting employment for a portion of 
the time usually wasted in playing or idleness, much to the annoyance 
of the teacher. 

Care should be taken to make the children understand that the size 
of the angle does not depend upon the length of the lines, but upon the 
difference in their direction. 



LESSONS ON COENEES AND ANGLES. 87 

Third Step.— Angles. — Those who wish to teach their 
pupils that " an angle is the difference in the direction 
of two lines that meet in a point," may give exercises 
in this step. 

The teacher draws three angles on the blackboard — 
acute, right, and obtuse — with one line in each in a hori- 
zontal position ; then asks, How many of these lines are 
in a horizontal position ? " Three." 

In what position are the other lines ? " One is per- 
pendicular, and two are slanting." 

Do the slanting lines run in the same direction? 
"No; one slants toward the right, and one toward the 
left." 

What is the shape of these lines ? " All are straight." 

I will now draw three more angles. Do the lines of 
either of these run in the same direction as the lines in 
one of the other angles ? " Yes ; the lines in each right 
angle run in the same direction." 

Look at the lines in the acute angles. " They run in 
the same direction also." 

How is it with the lines of the obtuse angles ? " The 
lines of each of these are alike." 

What do you observe about the size of the two acute 
angles? "They are both of the same size." How 
about the obtuse angles ? " They are alike in size." 

Now, when angles are of the same size, their lines run 
in the same direction. Do the lines of angles that dif- 
fer in size run in the same direction ? " No." 

Does the size of an angle depend upon the difference 
in the direction of its lines ? " It does." 

Is the difference in the direction of the lines of a right 
angle greater than the difference in the direction of the 
lines in an acute anoxic ? " It is." 



88 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

In which angle is the difference in the direction of 
the lines greatest? "In the obtuse angle." 

Then we might say " an angle is the difference in the 
direction of two straight lines that meet in a point." 

How many right angles may be drawn npon one hori- 
zontal line ? 

How many obtuse angles can be drawn upon one hori- 
zontal line ? 

Can more than two acute angles be made upon one 
horizontal line ? 

How many right angles can you make with two 
lines ? 

How many obtuse angles can you make with two 
lines ? 

How many acute angles can you make with two 
lines ? 



LESSONS ON PLANE FOKMS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

PLANE FOEMS. 

First Step.— Plane Forms. — Having provided pieces 
of paper, pasteboard, and cards of various sizes and 
shapes, as triangles, squares, oblongs, rhombs, circles, 
pentagons, half a sheet of paper (each form to be rep- 
resented by three or more pieces, and tioo or more sizes, 
including those from the Box of Forms), the teacher 
may place all of these forms on a table before the chil- 
dren, and, showing two or three at a time, lead the 
pupils to observe which shapes resemble each other, to 
count the corners, and edges, and compare the size. 

When the children are able readily to distinguish the 
differences in these forms by the number of corners and 
the number of edges, they may be required to classify 
them in groups with three corners and three edges ; and 
four corners and four edges; send Jive comers and five 
edges; six corners and six edges; and groups without 
corners, as circles. 

In a small class it would be best to allow the pupils 
to come to the table, one at a time, and make a selec- 
tion, each of two shapes, and place them with their ap- 
propriate groups. But in large classes the teacher may 
hold the form before the class, and require the pupils to 
tell the number of corners and edges, and in which group 
to place it. 

The teacher may now place the "Chart of Forms" be- 
fore the class, and call upon pupils to point to the forms 
with three corners ; then those with four corners ; then 



90 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

those without corners; then those with three edges; 
then with four edges. 

Afterward the teacher may draw these forms on the 
blackboard, and call j)upils to point them out, as before. 

Subsequently the children may draw these forms on 
their slates. 

Second Step.— Plane Forms. — Taking several squares 
and oblongs from the "Box of Forms for Object Teach- 
ing," or pieces of pasteboard representing these forms, 
the teacher may tell the pupils that the edges of these 
forms have another name; they are called sides; and 
when speaking of these edges we will call them sides. 

Holding up the square, the teacher asks, How many 
corners has this ? " Four." 

How many sides has it ? " Four." 

Holding up the oblong, she asks, How many corners 
has this ? " Four." 

How many sides has it ? " Four." 

How many corners has this form ? [Circle.] 

" No corners." 

Now I will point to these forms on the " Chart of 
Forms." How many sides has this figure ? " Four." 

How many has this ? " Four." 

How many has this ? " Three." 

How many corners has it ? " Three." 

How many corners has this form? "Four." 

Square. — Taking a square from the Box of Forms, 
the teacher asks. How many sides has this 
form? "Four." 

Look at the sides, and then tell me Avhich 
sid<3 is longest ? " They are all alike." 




LESSONS ON PLANE FORMS. 91 

Very good ; the sides are equal. Now look at this. 
How many sides has it ? " Four." 

Are these sides equal ? " JSTo ; two are longer than 
the other two." 

Taking ujd two squares, the teacher asks, Are the 
sides of both of these alike ? " They are." 

What kind of corners has this figure ? " Square cor- 
ners." 

How many square corners ? " Four." 

Now I will give you a name for this figure with, four 
square corners and four equal sides; it is a square. 
What do we call a figure with four square corners and 
four equal sides ? "A square." 

You may point to a square on the Chart of Forms. 
You may point to a square on the blackboard. 

What is the shape of this piece, of wood ? " Square." 

What is the shape of this piece of paper? "Square." 

What is the shape of this soda-cracker ? " Square." 

Why do you call it a square ? " Because it has four 
square corners and four equal sides." 

Oblong. — Holding up an oblong, the teacher asks, 

1 How many corners has this figure? 

\ "Four." 

I How many sides has it ? " Four." 

^ '"""' ' """"" '"""""" I Are these sides all equal ? *' No ; 



two are longer than the other two." 

This form has four square corners, and two equal long 
sides, and two equal short sides ; we will call it an ob- 
long. What shall we call this shape ? " An oblong." 

When shall we call a figure an oblong ? " When it 
has four square corners, and two equal long sides, and 
two equal short sides." 



92 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

You may point to oblongs on the Chart of Forms. 

You may point to oblongs on the blackboard. 

What is the shape of this book ? " Oblong." 

Why do you say the book is oblong ? " Because it 
has four square corners, and two equal long sides, and 
two equal short sides." 

Third Step.— Plane Forms. — I have several pieces of 
paper, and cards of the shape of squares, oblongs, and 
other forms, on this table. Some of the squares and 
oblongs are large, and some of the squares and oblongs 
are small. Here are also long and short strings. This 
is a long piece of paper, and it is narrow. Here is a 
long piece, but it is wider than the other. Do we say 
a string is long and wide ? 

We measure strings by length only. But when we 
wish to ascertain the size of squares, oblongs, and simi- 
lar forms, we measure their length and their loidth. 
These measures are called dimensio7is. 

Plane Forms. — Those flat objects which we measure 
in two directions, as squares, oblongs, and triangles, are 
Q2iW^Qdi plane forms. I^lane jneans Jlat, or even. Then 
plane forms are flat forms. 

We find the size of these by measuring tivo dimen- 
sions — length and width. 

How many measures would you make to find the 
size of a slate ? 

How many to find the length of a string ? 

How many to find the size of the top of this table ? 

How many dimensions have plane forms? How 
many dimensions has a line ? 



LESSONS ON TKIANGLES. 93 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

TEIANGLES. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

The lessons on triangles should not be introduced before the pupils 
have been made familiar with plane forms, and are able to distinguish 
them readily by the number of corners and sides; nor until they have 
learned the names of the square and oblong ; also of the different angles^ 
as right, obtuse, acute. 

The first lessons on triangles should treat of them as a class of 
three-cornered figures, without giving attention to the kinds of tri- 
angles. Several lessons may be given on this class of forms before the 
second step is taken, and before attention is directed to the different 
shapes and names of the kinds of triangles. 

The third step on triangles might be omitted in the Primary School ; 
at least it should not be undertaken until the pupils have become fa- 
miliar with all the other lessons on Form. These uncommon names 
of the triangles are more appropriate for older pupils in the more ad- 
vanced schools. 

First Step— Triangles.— What name do we give to 
corners ? " Angles." 

Holding 1123 a triangle, the teacher asks, Hoav many 
angles has this figure ? " Three." 

How many sides has it ? " Three." 

I will give yoii a name for these forms with three 
sides and three angles ; they are called tri-angles. Tri 
means three^ and the word tri-angles means tliree angles. 
Then a figure with three angles may be called a tri- 
angle. What is the name of this figure with three sides 
and three corners ? "A tri-angle." 

You may point to triangles on the Chart of Forms. 
Now you may point to triangles on the blackboard. 




94 TKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

How many lines does it take to make a triangle ? 

"Three." 

What does each line represent ? " One side." 
Why do you call this figure a triangle? "Because 

it has three angles." 

Second Step.— Equilateral Triangle. — What do you 
call this figure which I hold in my hand? 
"A triangle." 

Look at the sides of this triangle ; what 
can you say of them ? " They are all equak" 

Then it is an equal-sided triangle. What does equal- 
sided mean ? "Having all sides equal." 

Holding triangles of difierent shapes successively be- 
fore the pupils, the teacher asks. Is this equal-sided? 
" Yes." Is this equal-sided ? " Ko." 

I w^ill now give you another name for this shape, 
which means equal- sided y' the name is eqid- lateral. 
JEqui .means equal, and lateral means side ; hence we 
may say equi-lateral when we mean equal-sided. This 
is a hard word, and if you can not think of it you may 
say equal-sided. 

N"ow you may point to equilateral triangles on the 
chart; also on the blackboard. 

Why do we call these equilateral triangles ? " Be- 
cause the sides are all equal." 

You may now draw equilateral triangles on your 
slates. 

Plow many acute angles has the equilateral tri- 
angle ? 

Uight-angled Triangle. — Here is another triangle ; 
are its sides equal? "No." 





LESSONS ON TRIANGLES. 95 

How many acute angles has it ? " Two." 
What do you call the other angle ? "A 
right angle." 

This is a triangle with one right angle ; so 
we will call it a right-angled triangle. 
What may we call triangles with one right angle? 
" Right-angled triangles." 

You may show me right-angled triangles on the Chart 
of Lines ; also on the blackboard. How many lines will 
it take for each triangle ? 

Thir4 Step.— Isosceles Triangle. — Here is another tri- 
angle. Is it like either of the other two trian- 
gles ? What kind of angles has this ? "Acute 
angles." 

What can you say of its sides ? " It has two 
equal long sides, and one short side." 

This triangle has a hard name, and you may not be 
able to remember it. I Avill write the name on the 
blackboard, and you may see how strange it looks — 
Isosceles. It is pronounced I-sos-se-lez. 

You may point to isosceles triangles on the Chart of 
Forms and on the blackboard. You may also draw 
this angle on your slates. 

You need not try very hard to remember the name 
of this triangle. It will not matter if you wait until 
you are old enough to study Geometry in the Grammar 
or High School before you learn the name isosceles. 

Obtuse-angled Triangle. — Here is a triangle with two 
acute angles and one obtuse angle ; 
two of its sides are equal. This is 
called an oht use-angled triangle. 





96 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Scalene Triangle. — Here is another triangle with two 
acute angles and one obtuse angle ; 
but it has no two angles, nor any 
two sides equal. The other trian- 
gle, with one obtuse angle^ as you may see, has two equal 
sides, while this one has all its sides wiequal, and all its 
angles unequal. 

Here is another triangle that has three unequal acute 
angles and three unequal sides. Both 
of these angles may be called scalene tri- 
angles. The word scalene means crook- 
ed or unequal. These triangles have 
unequal sides. 

When may we call a triangle an equilateral triangle f 
When may we call a triangle a right-angled triangle f 
When may we call a triangle an isosceles triangle ? 
When may we call a triangle an ohtuse-angled tri- 
angle f 

When may we call a triangle a scalene triangle ? 
How many kinds of triangles can you draw on your 
slates ? 




LESSONS ON FOUK-SIDED FOEMS. 97 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

FOUE-SIDED rOEMS. 

FIEST STEP.— SQUARE, OBLONG, RHOMB. 

Square and Oblong. — I have here several forms with 
four sides. You have already learned the names of 
some of them, and, as I hold one of these up, you may 
speak its name ; but when I hold up one that you do 
not know, you need not say any thing. 

What is the name of this shape ? " Square." Of 
this? "Square." Of this? "Oblong." Of this? 

"Square." Of this? Of this? "Oblong." 

Of this? "Oblong." And of this? . 

^ n How many corners has this square ? 

\ "Four." 

What other name can you use for cor- 
"''' '" "" " "" '' " ' ners? "Angles." 



Then how many angles has this square? "Four 
angles." 

What kind of angles has the square ? " Eight an- 
gles." 

How many right angles has it? "Four right au- 

How many angles has the ob- 
long? "Four angles." 

How many right angles has it? 

"Four right angles." 

You told me that the square has four right angles 

also; now what is the difference between the square 

and the oblong ? " The square has four equal sides, 

E 




98 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

and the oblong has two equal long sides and two equal 
short sides." 

Very well. You see that a square has four equal 
sides and four right angles j and that an oblong has 
two equal long sides, and two equal short sides, and four 
right angles. 

I will write these descriptions of a square and an ob- 
long on the blackboard, and you may read them. 

I will now take one of these forms in my hand, with- 
out allowing you to see it, and describe it, and then you 
may tell the name of it. 

I hold in my hand a form with four equal sides and 
four right angles ; what is it ? "A square." 

I now hold in my hand a form with four right angles 
and four equal sides ; what is it ? "A square." 

I hold in my hand a lorm with four right angles, and 
two equal long sides and two equal short sides ; what 
is it? "An oblong." 

I hold in my hand a form with four right angles, and 
two short sides, and two more sides of the same length; 
what is it ? "A square." 

You may now tell me the names of things that you 
have seen of the shape of the square, and I will write 
them on the blackboard. 

Things that are square: 
Soda-crackers. 
Stove door. 
End of a box. 
Some books. 
A piece of paper. 
Some windows. 

Now I will write the names of things which you have 
seen that are oblong in shape. 



LESSONS ON FOUR-SIDED FOKMS. 99 

Things that are oblong : 
Slates. Side of the stove. 

Books. Top of the table. 

Doors. Blackboard. 

Glass. Side of the room. 

Why do you say these objects are obloug? "Be- 
cause they have four right angles, and two equal long 
sides and two equal short sides." 

Why do you say the soda-cracker is square ? " Be- 
cause it has four equal sides and four right angles." 

FOR THE TEACHER. 

This first step may be taken in one, two, or three exercises, as the 
age of the children and their progress seem to indicate best. 

Rhomb. — I have here several forms which I wish you 
to observe, and tell me how they resem- 
ble each other. Holding up a square 
and a rhomb, the teacher asks. Are these 
forms alike? How many sides has this? "Four." 

How many sides has this ? " Four." 

Then both have the same number of sides. Are all 
the sides of the square of the same length ? " They 
are." 

Are all the sides of this form of the same length ? I 
will measure them with the side of the square. What 
do you now observe? "The sides are all equal." 

Are they of the same sizes as those of the square ? 
"They are." 

Then both of these forms have the same number of 
sides, and all the sides are of the same length. Now 
why do you say these two forms arc not alike ? " Be- 
cause their angles are not alike." 




100 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Very good. What kind of angles has the square ? 
"Right angles." 

What kind of angles has this form ? " Two acute 
angles and two obtuse angles." 

I will now give you a name for this figure with four 
equal sides, and two acute angles and two obtuse an- 
gles; it is a rhomb. I will write the name on the 
blackboard, and you may spell it. 

As I hold up these forms, you may tell their names. 
"Square; rhomb; oblong; rhomb; oblong; square." 

You may now point to a square on the Chart of 
Forms. The next boy may point to an oblong; the 
next to a rhomb. 

Now you may tell me what you have seen of the 
shape of this rhomb, and I will write the name on the 
blackboard. 

Thincj8 of fhomh sliax:>Q\ 
Some cakes. 
Some candies. 
A piece of paper. 
A lozenge. 
Some panes of glass. 

You may now draw rhombs, and squares, and oblongs 
on your slates. How many lines does it take to repre- 
sent a rhomb ? How many lines does it take for each 
of these forms ? 



SECOND STEP.— RHOMBOID. 

The teacher may prepare several pieces of j^aper, 
pasteboard, etc., in the shape of rhombs and of rhom- 
boids, and, holding one of each before the pupils, ask, 
Are the corners of these forms alike ? 




LESSONS ON FOUK-SIDED FOKMS. 101 

How many acute angles has each ? 
How many obtuse angles has each ? 
Are the sides alike ? " No ; one has two long sides 
and two short sides." 

Rhomboid. — This form is somewhat like a rhomb, so 
it is called a rhomboid: aid 
means somewhat like. You see 
that this differs from a rhomb 
only in the length of two of its sides. 

Point to a rhomboid on the Chart of Forms. 
You may describe a rhomboid. " A rhomboid has 
two equal long sides, two equal short sides, two acute 
angles, and two obtuse angles." 



THIRD STEP.— TRAPEZIUM, TRAPEZOID. 

I have here forms of two shapes. You may tell me 
how many angles each has ? " Four angles." 

How many sides has each ? " Four." 

What kind of angles has this form ? [Showing the 
trapezium.] "It has one acute angle, two obtuse an- 
gles, and one right angle." 

Are two of its sides parallel ? " No." 

Trapezium. — Any form that has four sides and four 
angles, and that has no two sides 
parallel, is called a trapezium. What 
may you call this figure? "A tra- 
pezium." 

You may point to a trapezium on the Chart of Forms. 

When do we call a four-sided figure a trapezium? 
" When no two of its sides are parallel." 





102 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSOXS. 

Trapezoid. — Here is another four-sided form; what 
^ can you say of its sides? "Two of 
its sides are parallel." 

A figure that has four sides, with 
only two of them parallel, is called a trapezoid. A tra- 
pezoid is somewhat like a trapezium. 

How many parallel sides has a trapezoid ? 
How many parallel sides has a trapezium ? 

Quadrilateral. — All four-sided figures may be called 
quadrilateral forms. This word m.Q2kn.s four-sided. 

Parallelogram. — A four-sided figure with its opposite 
sides parallel may be called a parallelogram. Then 
squares, oblongs, rhombs, and rhomboids may be called 

parallclogr:inij. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

The third step in four-sided figures may be postponed until the 
third steps in the other divisions oi Form have been taken, except the 
third of Triangles. 

Or it may be omitted altogether in the Primary School. Whether 
it would be better to teach it, or to omit it, must depend upon the prog- 
ress of the pupils and their ages. 



LESSONS ON MANY-SIDED FORMS. 103 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

MANY-SIDED FORMS. 

FIRST STEP.— PENTAGON, HEXAGON. 

Having provided pentagons and hexagons from the 
Box of Forms, also several pieces of pasteboard and pa- 
per of the same shape, the teacher may request the pu- 
pils to count the corners and sides as each is held up ; 
and those with five sides may be placed in one group, 
and those with six sides in another group. 

Pentagon. — How many angles has this form? " Five 
angles." 

How many sides has it ? " Five sides." 
A flat figure with Jive angles and five sides 
is called a pentagon. Penta means five, and 
gon means angle; therefore the y^ov^ penta-gon means 
having five angles. A plane form with five angles is 
called 2. pentagon. 

How many sides has a pentagon ? How many an- 
gles has it ? What do you call a plane figure with five 
angles ? A form wSxhfive equal sides is a regular penta- 
gon. 

Hexagon. — How many sides has this form? " Six." 
How many angles has it ? " Six." 
The name of this form is hexagon. How 
many angles has it ? " Six." 

What part of the word means angle ? " The last part 

-gon.^'' 






104 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Then what do you thmk hexa may mean ? " Six." 
Very well. So the word hexagon means having six 

angles. Then this is a good name for this form. 

How many sides has a hexagon ? How many angles 

has it ? What do we call a plane figure with six angles ? 



SECOND STEP.— HEPTAGON, OCTAGON, NONAGON, DEC- 
AGON. 

Heptagon. — We have already learned what figures 
with five angles and those with six angles 
are called. iN'ow I hold another form in my 
hand; you may count the number of an- 
gles on this. " One, two, three, four, five, 
six, seven." 

This is a figure with seven angles ; its name is hepta- 
gon. Now you may tell me what part of this word 
means seven. I will write it on the blackboard. " Hep- 
ta." Very good. 

Octagon. — Here is another figure. Count its angles. 

" One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight." 

Then this form has eight angles. Its name 

is octagon. Now can you tell me what octa 

means? "Eight." 

Then an octagon is a plane figure with eight angles. 

What does gon mean ? 

Nonagon. — You may count the angles in this figure. 
" One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, 
nine." 

It has nine angles, and it is called a nona- 
gon. What does nona mean ? " Nine." 





LESSONS ON MANY-SIDED FORMS. 105 

Then nonagon is a plane figure having nine a7igles, 
A form with nine equal sides is a regular nonagon. 

Decagon. — You may count the angles on this form. 
" One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, 




It has ten angles ; and its name is decagon. 
Then deca means te7i. Decagon is a plane 
figure having ten angles. 

You may now point to each of these shapes on the 
Chart of Forms and on the blackboard as I name them. 
Decagon, pentagon, octagon, hexagon, nonagon, etc. 

Polygons. — The teacher may show a piece of paper 
cut with many angles, and ask the children, Has this a 
few or many angles? Has it a few or many sides? 
This is a figure of many angles^ so it may be called a 
^polygon : poly means many. 

Sometimes all of these forms that have more than 
four angles are called polygoois. "When all the sides of 
a polygon are equal, it is called a regular polygon. 

Suggestions for the Teacher.— These lessons on the many- 
sided forms should not be taken up until the third steps of the pre- 
ceding divisions of form, except those of triangles and four-sided fig- 
ures, have been mastered, and not until the Jirst and second steps of 
most of the succeeding divisions of form have been learned. 

The most important ybr/n of the polygons is the hexagon. Besides 
being the shape commonly adopted for large nuts and bolt-heads, it 
is the shape of the cells in honeycomb. It is a wonderful fact that 
this from gives the largest space and greatest strength with the least 
amount of wax in the construction. No better shape could be devised 
for these cells than that which God taught the bee to use. Illustrate 
the perfect manner in which hexagons will fit together by using the 
ten small hexagons from the Box of Forms. 
E2 



106 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

CIECULAE FOKMS. 

FIRST STEP.— CIRCLE, SEMICIRCLE, RING. 

The teacher may provide for this lesson several coins, 
flat buttons, circles and semicircles from the Box of 
Forms, circles and semicircles cut from pasteboard or 
paper, also a triangle, a square, and an oblong. Show- 
ing the square, she may ask, Plow many corners has this 
form ? How many has this ? " Three." 
How many has this ? " It has no corners." 
Taking up the square, the teacher asks, What kind 
of lines are represented by the edges of this form ? 
" Straight lines-" 

" How many straight lines are represented by this 
(triangle) form ? " Three.'^ 
How many by the square ? " Four straight lines." 
How many straight lines has the oblong ? " Four." 

Circle. — How many lines are represented by tiie edge 
of this form ? " Only one." 

What is the shape of this edge? "Curved." 
We sometimes say the line that forms the 
edge of a shape hounds that form ; that is, 
it shows how far the figure extends. The walls of this 
room show how far the room extends, and they hound 
the room. 

How many lines bound this triangle ? " Three." 
How many bound this square ? " Four lines." 
What is the shape of the lines that bound the tri- 




LESSONS ON CIKCULAK FOKMS. 107 

angle, square, and oblong? "They are all straight 
lines." 

What is the shape of the line that hounds this figure? 
" Curved." 

How many lines bound this figure ? " Only one." 

You may call this figure a circle. What is the name 
of this shape? "Circle." 

Showing the various objects of a circular form, the 
teacher asks, What is the shape of this? "Circle." 
Of this? Of this? "Circle." 

What is the shape of this two-cent piece ? " Like a 
circle.'* 

What is the shape of the lid on the stove ? "A cir- 
cle." 

A circle has one evenly curved edge. 

Circular.— Sometimes you see an object that is almost 
round like this circle, but not so perfect in shape ; then 
you may call its shape circular. You may also use this 
word when asked the shape of these objects, as, what is 
the shape of this five-cent piece ? Circular would be a 
correct answer. 

You may point to a circle on the Chart of Forms. 

I will now take a string, and show you how to draw 
a circle on the blackboard. 

You see that I place my finger on the string and hold 
it firmly against the board, and I hold the opposite end 
of the string and a piece of chalk with the fingers of 
the other hand, and then move them around on the 
board, thus, making a curved line with both ends meet- 
ing. 

I will now make a mark to show the place where I 
held the string on the board with my finger. 



108 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Centre. — This dot is in the middle of the circle. This 

O place is called the centre. If I should meas- 
ure the distance from the centre to this 
boundary line, it would be exactly the same 
in every direction. 

Suppose a boy should tie a string to a post so loosely 
that it would slip around it, and, taking hold of the 
other end, should walk around the post as far from it 
as the string would reach, what would be the shape of 
his path ? " Circular." 

In a small class, two boys might be called to form a 
circle on the floor, one being required to place himself 
at the centre and hold a string, while the other pupil 
holds the other end to a piece of chalk, and marks the 
floor as he passes around the centre. 

You may now take these strings and draw circles on 
your slates, and make a dot in each to show the cen- 
tre. 

These practical illustrations greatly interest children, 
and fix the subjects in their minds ; they should always, 
as much as is compatible with order, he actors in their 
lessons. 

You may now tell me the names of objects that you 
have seen with a circular shape. 

Semicircle. — I will now take one of the circles made 
of paper, and cut it through the middle, so as to 
make two equal parts. What would you call one 
of these parts ? " Half a circle." 

Very good. I will give you another name 
which means half a circle; it is semicircle. Semi 
means half, so that semicircle means — "Half a cir- 
cle." 




LESSONS ON CIRCULAR FORMS. 109 

Here is a half circle among these forms ; what do we 
call it? "A semicircle." 

Now point to a semicircle on the Chart of Forms. 

Did you ever see any thing of this shape in the sky ? 
" Yes ; the moon." 

If you had a circular pie, how could you make a semi- 
circle of it ? " Cut it into two equal parts." 

What part of the pie would one piece be ? " One half" 

Ring. — Here is a circle with its centre cut out ; what 
would you call it ? "A ring." 

What kind of a line bounds the outside of 
the ring ? "A curved line." 

What kind of a line bounds the inside of 
the ring? "A curved line." 
Then how many curved lines has a ring ? " Two." 
Look at this ring, and tell me whether these curved 
lines are both of the same length. "No; one is shorter 
than the other." 

Where are these lines ? " One is outside of the 
other." 

What have you seen of this shape ? " Finger-rings, 
rings on chains, hoops, etc." 

SECOND STEP.— CRESCENT, ELLIPSE, OVAL. 

.For this step the teacher should provide from the 
Box of Forms the crescent, oval, ellipse, and circle and 
semicircles, also the same shapes cut from paper. 

Crescent. — What is this figure called ? "A circle." 
And this ? "A semicircle." 
Now look at this figure, and tell me how it differs 




110 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

from the semicircle. " It has two curved edges, and 
the semicircle has one straight edge." 

You may call this form a crescent. I will write 
it on the blackboard, that you may see how the 
word looks. What is this word ? "Crescent." 
What have you seen of this shape? " The new 
moon ; the front of a boy's cap ; a rocker of a cradle ; a 
piece of an apple." 

Ellipse. — Is this figure a circle ? " No ; it is longer 
one way than the other." 

Has it any corners ? " No." 
Has it ends ? " Yes ; it has two ends." 
We call a form of this shape an ellipse. 
You may spell the word as I write it on 
the blackboard. What is the name of this form ? " El- 
lipse." 

Did you ever see any thing of this shape ? " Yes ; 
picture-frames." 

There is another word which we may use for this 
shape ; it is elliptical. This word means having the 
form of an ellipse. Sometimes this shape is called oval. 
You may point to this form on the Chart. 

Oval. — Here is another figure that is bounded by one 
curved line ; is this a circle ? " No ; it is 
longer one way than it is the other." 

What did we call the other form which 
was longer than it was wide ? " An ellipse." 
This is another ellipse, but it usually has a different 
name. 

Did you ever see any thing that resembles this shape? 
"An eojff." 




^isi=>' 



LESSONS ON CIRCULAR FORMS. Ill 

Very good ; its side resembles an egg in shape. An 
egg was called ovum by the Latin people. We call 
this shape oval because its side resembles the egg- 
shape. Oval is the name of a plane figure. 

What have you seen of this shape ? " Leaves of 
trees." 

I hold in my hand a plane figure having one evenly 
curved line for its edge ; what is it ? "A circle." 

I hold a plane figure having one curved edge and one 
straight edge ; what is it ? "A semicircle." 

I hold a plane figure with a curved edge, with two 
equal ends; what is it? "An ellipse." "An oval." 

I hold a plane figure with a curved edge, with one 
large end and one small end ; what is it ? " An 
oval." 



THIRD STEP.— CIRCUMFERENCE, ARC, DIAMETER. 

For the exercises of this step the teacher should have 
before her rings, circles, cylinders, spheres, and other 
objects of similar shape. 

Circumference. — Here I have forms and objects that 
are round like a ring, round like a circle, round 
like a cylinder, and round like a hall. Now I 
will take this string and measure the distance 
around them. We call the distance around an object 
its circumference. Then what am I going to measure? 
" The circumference." 

What is the curved line that bounds the circle called ? 
" Its circumference." 

Point to the circumference of the circles on the Chart 
and on the blackboard. Where is the circumference of 




112 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

this ring ? of this apple ? of this cup ? of this hat ? of 
this button ? etc. 

Arc. — I will draw a circle on the blackboard, and then 

y' — ^ rub out a part of its circumference. The part 

I j of the circumference that is left is called an 

''»....^-'' arc. What is a part of the circumference of a 

circle called ? " An arc." 

Point to an arc on the Chart — on the blackboard. 

I hold in my hand a paper ring ; now, if I cut out a 
piece of this ring, we might call the piece of it an arc, 
because it would be a part of the circumference of the 
ring. 

FOR THE TEACHER. 

The words circumference^ arc, and diameter should each be written 
on the blackboard and spelled by the pupils during the exercise for 
each of these terms. 



A 



Diameter. — I will draw a circle on the blackboard, 
and place •a dot in the centre, and I will 
take this straight stick and place it across 
/ the circle so that I can just see the dot in 
'"*-.. — -^•' the centre. Now I will draw a line across 
this circle directly through its centre, and make the 
ends of the line touch the circumference on opposite 
sides. If I measure this line, it will show me the dis- 
tance through the centre of the circle ; this is called the 
diameter. What is the distance through the centre of 
a circle called ? " The diameter." 

You may point to the diameter of a circle on the 
Chart ; also on the blackboard. What does diameter 
mean ? " The distance through the centre." 



LESSONS ON CIRCULAR FORMS. 113 

Where does the line representing the diameter begin ? 
" It begins in the circumference." 

Where does it end ? " It ends in the circumference 
on the opposite side." 

Through what does it pass ? " Through the centre." 

What is the distance around a circle called ? 

What is the distance around a ball called ? 

What would you call the distance around a stove- 
pipe ? 

What is the distance through the centre of a circle 
called? 

What would you call the distance through the centre 
of an orange ? 

What is a part of the cii'cumference called ? 

Which is longer, the circumference or the diameter 
of any thing ? 



rOUETH STEP.— KADIUS, QUADRANT, SECTOR. 

I will draw some circles on the blackboard, and place 
a dot in the centre of each. Now I will draw a straight 
line from the centre of one of these circles to its circum- 
ference. This is called the radius of the circle. 
Radius ^ ^'^^^ ^^^ draw two lines across the other 
circle, through its centre, and at right angle 
with each other. Now each of these lines, 
from the centre to the circumference, also 
may be called a radius of this circle. A ra- 
dius, then, is one half of the diameter of a circle. 

Quadrant. — This second circle, you observe, is divided 
into four equal parts. What do we call one fourth 
part of an apple ? "A quarter." 




114 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

These jDarts of the circle are called quadrants. Quad- 
rant means a quarter^ or one fourth part of a circle. 
What part of a circle is a quadrant ? "A fourth part." 

If you had a piece of pie of the shape of a quadrant^ 
what part of the whole pie would you have ? " One 
quarter of it." 

Sector. — I will now draw three straight lines through 
the diameter of the other circle. Is each part of 
A the circle now as large as a quadrant ? " No." 
"^ Each of these small pieces of the circle may be 
called a sector. 

Which had you rather have, a piece of pie of the 
shape of a quadrant or of the shape of a sector? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

The fourth step of "Circular Forms" may be omitted in the Pri- 
mary Schools whenever the pupils are not prepared by training in 
other steps to easily understand the terms used here. 

All of these lessons on circular forms, and the various parts of circles, 
should be fidly illustrated by objects, pieces of paper, drawings on the 
blackboard, etc. 



LESSONS ON SUKFACE AND FACES.' 115 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

SUKFACE AND FACES. 

FIRST STEP.— PLANE AND CURVED SURFACES. 

Taking the chalk and writing on the blackboard, the 
teacher says, I am writing ; can you tell me where I am 
writing ? " On the blackboard." 

Am I writing on the inside of the board ? " No ; on 
the outside." 

On what part of your slates do you make figures ? 
" On the sides." 

What am I holding in my hand ? " An apple." 

What part of the apple do you see ? " The skin." 

On what part of the apple is the skin ? " On the 
outside." 

When you take hold of an orange, what part of it do 
you touch ? " The skin — the outside." 

Surface. — ^I will now give you another word Avhicli 
means outside ; it is surface. The color of an apple is 
on its surface. I Avrite on the surface of the black- 
board ; you walk on the surface of the floor. On what 
part of your slates do you make figures? "On the sur- 
face." 

On what part of a pane of glass in the window does 
the fly crawl ? 

When boys skate, on what part of the ice are 
they? 

When a board floats on the water, on what part of 
the water is it ? 



116 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSOXS. 

Plane Surface. — When a surface is flat, like your slate, 
the top of this table, or the floor, we call it a plane sur- 
face. 

What kind of a surface has the blackboard? "A 
plane surface." 

What kind of a surface has the wall of the room ? 
" A plane surface." 

Tell me other objects which have plane surfaces. 
" The book-covers ; the ceiling; the glass; the floor." 

Curved Surface. — ISTow look at tlie surface of this ball 
and the surface of this slate, and tell me wliat difierence 
you see in the shape of these surfaces. " The slate has 
a plane surface, and the ball has a curved surface." 

What do you call the surface of an apple? "A curved 
surface." 

What would you call the surface around your hat ? 
"A curved surface." 

Now tell me the names of things that have curved 
surfaces. "Pails; cups; oranges; stove-pipes; barrels." 

Can you mention some object that has two plane 
faces and one curved face? "A drum; a barrel." 

What kind of surface has a brick ? What kinds of 
surfaces has half of an apple ? 

SECOND STEP.— FACES OF SOLIDS. 

You told me the other day that a brick has a plane 
surface^' now, has the brick more than one outside? 
" No." 

Well, suppose a brick lies on the ground ; could we 
not speak of the upper surface of the brick and of the 
lower surface of the brick ? 



LESSONS ON SURFACE AND FACES. 117 

I will try to help you out of this difficulty. How 
many surfaces has the orange ? " Only one." 

How many has this ball ? " Only one." 

Here is a block with square sides ; how many sur- 
faces has it ? 

Well, you may count the sides. " One, two, three, 
four, five, six." Now the outside of this block is di- 
vided into six parts, and each part is called a face. 
All of the faces make its surface. 

Now you may tell me into how many faces the sur- 
face of a brick is divided. " Into six faces." 

And all of the faces together make up the surface. 
How many faces has a bar of soap ? How many faces 
has a tea-box ? 

How many faces has a pencil ? How many faces has 
a marble ? 



THIRD STEP.— SURFACES. 

You have already learned the names of two kinds of 
surfaces ; what are these called ? " Plane surfaces and 
curved surfaces." 

Look at the surface of the outside of the glass in my 
watch, and tell me its shape. " It is curved." 

Now look at the inside surface of this glass, and tell 
me its shape. "It is curved, but not like the out- 
side." 

You perceive, then, that curved surfaces are not all 
curved the same way. Sometimes you may wish to tell 
how a surface is curved ; and that you may be able to 
do this readily, I will give you names for both kinds of 
curved surfaces. 



118 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Convex- Surface. — When any surface is curved like 
the outside of a ball, or like this glass, it is called a 
convex surface. 

Concave Surface. — When any surface is curved like 
the inside of this watch-glass, or the inside of an orange- 
peel, it is called a concave surface. 

What kind of a curved surface has a ball ? 

What kind of curved surface has the bottom of an 
iron kettle, inside ? 

What kind of surface has the inside of a soup-plate ? 

What kind of surface has the inside of the bowl of a 
spoon ? 

What kind of surface has the outside of the bowl of 
the spoon? 

When a mirror makes your face appear very large, 
the surface of the mirror is concave. 

When a mirror makes your face appear very small, 
the surface of the mirror is convex. 



SOLID FIGURES — SPHEEE, HEMISPHEEE, ETC. 119 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

SOLID FIGUEES— SPHERE, HEMISPHEEE, 
SPHEEOID. 

EIRST STEP.— BALL SHAPE. 

Foe the exercise of this step the teacher may provide 
balls of wood, rubber, lead, marbles, and an orange. 

Ball. — Here is a piece of wood ; what is its shape ? 

• "Round." , 

You may say round like a hall. What is 
the shape of this rubber? "Round like a 
ball." 
What is the shape of this piece of lead ? 
"Round like a ball." 

What is the shape of this cent? "Round like a 
circle." 

You may tell me the names of objects that are round 
like a hall. 

"Marbles; oranges; grapes; currants; shot." 



SECOND STEP.— SPHERE, HEMISPHERE. 
You say the shape of the orange is " round like a halV 
Sphere. ^ ^^^^ &^^^ 7^^^ ^^^ word that means round 
like a hall; it is sphere. When I ask you to 
tell me the shape of an orange, you may an- 
swer, a sphere. What is the shape of this 
rubber ball ? "A sphere." 
What is the shape of a marble ? 




120 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Spherical. — There is another word which is some- 
times used in place of the word sphere ; it is spherical^ 
and means having the shape of a sphere. Therefore 
you might say the grape is spherical ; the globe is 
spherical. 

Now look at this sphere, and tell me how many sur- 
faces it has. " Only one surface." 

What is the shape of the surface ? " It is a curved 
surface." 

How is the surface curved ? ^' Alike in all its parts." 

Then a sphere is a solid figure with oyie eve7ily curved 
surface. 

Hemisphere. — If I should cut a sphere into two equal 
parts, what might you call one of those parts ? 
" Half of a sphere." 

Very good. How many halves of a sphere 

can I make from one sphere ? " Only two." 

I will now give you a new name for half of ct sphere ; 

it is hemisphere. Hemi means lialf; then hemisphere 

means half of a sphere^ or half of a ball. What is the 

shape of half an orange ? " Hemisphere." 

How many hemispheres could I make from one or- 
ange ? How many faces has a hemisphere ? " Two 
faces?" 

What is the shape of the faces of a hemisphere? 
" One is flat, the other is curved." 

Then a hemisphere has one plane circidar face and 
one curved face. 

How many hemispheres would it take to equal a 
sphere ? 




SOLID FIGUEES — SPHERE, HEMISPHEKE, ETC. 121 

Solids. — To illustrate the idea of solids, the teacher 
should provide a variety of objects, as a cube, a prism, 
an oblong, a rhomboid, a square, large and small books, 
some of them thick and some thin ; a sheet of paper, 
and a string. 

Suppose I wanted a string long enough to reach 
across the room, should I measure the width of the 
string to find whether it would be long enough or not ? 
" No ; you should measure its length.'''^ 

Could I ascertain whether the string is as long as I 
want it by measuring one dimension^ its length. " Yes." 
Suppose I wish to find how large a piece of paper or 
cloth it will take to cover the top of this table, could I 
find the size by measuring the length of the table only ? 
"No; you must measure its width also." 

Each measure of an object, is called a dimension. 
Then how many dimensions must I measure to find the 
size of the top of this table ? " Two dimensions." 

How many dimensions must I measure to find the 
size of your slate ? " Two." 

What do we call those forms that have two dimen- 
sions, like the oblong, slate, etc. ? " Plane forms." 

Here are large and small books. Some are long, and 
wide, and thin ; some are short, and narrow, and thin ; 
some books of the same length are thin, and others are 
thick. How can I find which books are largest ? " By 
measuring them." 

How many dimensions must I measure? "Three; 
the length, the width, and the thickness." 

How can I find the size of a box ? " By measuring 
its length, its width, and its thickness." 

Holding a cube, How can I find the size of this ? " By 
measuring three dimensions." 

F 



122 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Any object that has three dimensions — length, 
breadth, and thickness, is called a solid. Now what 
may we call a stick of wood ? "A solid." 

What may we call a brick ? "A solid." 



THIRD STEP.— SPHEROIDS AND OVOID. 

Sometimes we find objects that are not quite like a 
sphere in shape; they are nearly round like a ball; 
these are called spheroids. 

Spheroid.— A lemon, a peach, and a watermelon are 
s^^heroids. 

What is the shape of a plum? "Spheroid." Of a 
grape ? " Some grapes are spheres and some are sphe- 
roids." 

Some s2)heroids are long, like the lemon ; some are 
flattened, like the onion, or a 
white turnip. When a sj)heroid 
is long, it is called a prolate sjyhe- 
roid. When a spheroid is flatten- q^^^^q 

Pro-late Spheroid. ^^^^ .^ .^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ spheroid. SP^eroid. 

Ovoid. — What have you seen of the shape of this sol- 
id ? " An egg.'' 

Very well. This shape was named 
ovoid because this word means egg- 
shaped. Ovcd is a flat or plane figure, 
the boundary of which resembles an egg-shape. Ovoid 
is a solid figure shaped like an egg. 

Did you ever see any fruit of this shape? 






LESSONS ON A CYLINDER AND CONE. 123 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

A CYLINDER AND CONE. 

FIRST STEP.— CYLINDER. 

For illustrating the forms of a cylinder and cone, 
several objects having these shapes should be provided ; 
also a sphere. 

What am I holding in my left hand ? "A ball." 

In how many ways is it round ? " Every way." 

In how many ways is the object in my right hand 
round ? " Two ways." 

In how many ways will the ball roll? "In every 
way." 

In how many ways will this object roll ? I will try 
it on the table. " In two ways." 

What is the shape of this object ? " It is round." 

Cylinder. — Is it round like a ball ? " No ; it is round 
and long." 

Can you say any thing more about it ? " It 
has cii;cular, flat ends." 

What can you say of the surface of its sides ? 
" Its sides have a curved surface." 
Tell me of something that resembles this ob- 
ject. " A stove-pipe ; a round ruler; a pencil." 

This is called a cylinder. The shape of any thing 
that resembles this in form is liJce a cylinder. 

Did you ever see any thing growing in the field or 
forest that resembled this form in any of its parts ? 
"Yes, trees; stalks of wheat; oats; sugar-cane." 



124 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSOXS. 

Which end of this cylinder is larger ? " Both are of 
the same size." 



SECOND STEP.— CYLINDER, CONE. 

Place a sphere, a cylinder, a cone, and a cube on the 
table, and request a pupil to roll each across the table. 
Which of these solids will roll best? "The sphere." 

Cylinder. — Suppose you wished to roll an object along 
the floor, which shape would you prefer, that of a cube 
or that of a cylinder f " The form of a cylinder." 

Now will you describe a cylinder f 

A cylinder has two equal^plane^ circular ends^ and one 
curved surface for its sides. 

You may tell me what objects you have seen that arc 
shaped like a cylinder. "Lead-pencil; stove-j^ipe; gas- 
pipe ; a candle ; stick of candy ; broom-handle ; pen- 
holder ; the legs of some chairs." 

Sometimes we use the word cylindrical^ which means 
like a cylinder. We can say the stove-pipe is cylindri- 
cal ; a lead-pencil is cylindrical. 

Cone. — I wish you to look at this object, and tell me 
whether it is like the sphere or like a cylin- 
der. " It is not like either." 

Look at the bottom of this, then at one 
end of the cylinder; what can you say of the 
shape of each ? " Both are circular." 

Are the sides of this like those of a cylinder? "No; 
the sides of this go to a point." 

You may say the sides taper to a point. This figure 
is called a cone. 




LESSONS ON A CYLINDER AND CONE. 125 

Did you ever see the fruit or seed of a pine-tree? 
Well, can you tell me wliat that seed is called ? "A 
cone." 

Which of the objects does it most resemble, the cyl- 
inder or the other? " The other object." 

Xow if the shape of this object resembles the cone 
of a pine-tree, what would be a good name for it? 

"A €0726.^'' 

Yes; all objects that are round like a cylinder at one 
end, but which taper to a point at the other end, may 
be called cone-shaped. 

Base. — The bottom of the cone, or the part on which 
it stands, is called its base. The part on which any ob- 
ject rests or stands is called its base. Then what is the 
bottom of a cone called ? " Its base." 

I have placed the cylinder uj)on one of its ends ; now 
what is the base of this cylinder ? " The end upon 
which it stands." 

I have placed the cylinder upon the other end ; now 
what is its base ? " The end upon which it stands." 

What is the base of any object ? " The part upon 
which it stands." 

Apex. — The top of the cone is called its ofj^ecc. The 
apex means the top, or the highest point. Here is a 
solid with four sides, which meet in a point at the top ; 
what may we call this point ? " The apex." 

I will now write a description of a cone on the black- 
board, and you may repeat it. 

A co7ie is a solid having a flat, circidar base, and a 
curved surface tapering regularly to a point at the top. 



126 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



THIKD STEP.— CONICAL, CONOID. 

Conical. — Instead of saying cone-shaped^ we may use 
the word conical, which means having a form like a 
cone. 

Conoid. — When the sides of a conical solid do not 
taper regularly to the apex, it may be called a conoid. 
The sides of the cone taper in straight lines, but the 
sides of a conoid taper in curved lines. The 
conoid is nearly like a cone, as may be seen 
in the illustration. 

What have you seen of this shape ? "A 
Conoid, hay-stack ; a Minie bullet ; some tops ; the 
small ends of some eggs ; an acorn ; a pine-apple ; some 
cocoa-nuts ; pine-apple cheese ; some berries." 





LESSONS ON A CUBE AND CUBICAL FOEMS. 127 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A 

CUBE AND CUBICAL FOKMS. 

EIRST STEP.— CUBE. 

I HAVE placed a solid figure on the table before you. 
What is the shape of each side that you can see? 
" Square." 

Cube. — I will hold it, and you may count its sides as 
I touch each. " One, two, three, four, five, 
six." 

How many sides has it ? " Six." 
What is the shape, of each side ? " Square." 
The name of this figure is cube. Then how many sides 
has a cube ? What other name may we give for side ? 
"Face." 

Then how many faces has a cube ? " Six faces." 
What is the shape of each face of the cube ? " Square." 
Are all the faces of a cube equal ? " Yes." 
A cube is a solid having six equal square faces. 
I will write this on the blackboard, that you may re- 
member it. 



SECOND STEP.— CUBICAL EORMS. 

How many faces has a cube ? " Six faces." 

What is the shape of each of the faces? *' Square." 

Is a bar of soap like a cube ? How does it difier from 

a cube ? " Only two of its faces are square ; the others 

are oblong." 



128 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Sometimes we find objects that have six sides, some 
of which are square, and others nearly so ; the shape of 
these may be called cubical^ because they are nearly like 
a cube. 

What objects have you seen that resemble a cube? 
" Lumps of sugar ; pieces of cake ; tea-chests ; some 
boxes; pieces of soap." 

When do you call a solid a cube ? " When it has six 
equal square faces.'''' 

How would you make a cube from a bar of soap? 
" Cut off a piece so that it would have six equal square 
faces." 

Which side of a cube is its base ? 

How many different bases may a cube have ? 

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 

The teacher might farther illustrate the shape of the cube by taking 
the square and triangular prisms and the inch cube from the Box of 
Forms, and showing how cubes could be made by cutting the square 
prism into pieces having six equal square faces. 

The triangular prism might be shown, and the pupils asked whether 
cubes could be cut from it. Why would not a piece cut 
from the triangular prism have the shape of a cube ? 

This figure represents the shape of a piece of paste- 
board that may be folded so as to form a cube. The 
dotted lines indicate the places of the folds. To show 
children how to cut and fold a paper or pasteboard 
cube would both interest and instruct them, and furnish 
the means for profitable amusement and instruction at home. 



LESSONS ON PRISMS. 129 



LESSONS TO. DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 
PKISMS. 

FIRST STEP.— PRISMS. 

Before commencing these lessons the teacher should 
provide a cube, a triangular, a square, and a hexagonal 
prism, from the Box of Forms ; also other objects hav- 
ing equal ends, but unequal sides ; and some with un- 
equal ends. All of these objects should be placed on 
a table in front of the teacher, or in a box conveniently 
near. 

Holding up a cube, the teacher asks. What is this 
shape ? " A cube." 

Taking up a square prism, the teacher asks. Is the 
shape of this like a cube ? " ISTo ; the sides are not all 
square." 

What is the shape of its sides ? " Oblong." 

What is the shape of its ends? "Square." 

Holding up a triangular prism, the teacher asks, What 
is the shape of the sides of this ? " Oblong." 

What is the shape of its ends ? " Triangular." 

Holding up an oblong solid having unequal sides, the 
teacher asks. What is the shape of the sides of this ? 
" Oblong." 

Now look at these oblong sides. Are all of them of 
the same size ? " No." 

Look at the sides of this, which has triangular ends. 
Are its sides all equal ? " They are." 

What can you say of the sides of this solid, with 
square ends ? " They are all equal." 
F 2 



130 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

How many of these objects have equal sides? "Two." 
I will give you a name for solids having equal oUong 
sides and equal ends. They are called 2yrisms. If the 
sides are not equal, we do not call them prisms. What 
do we call solids having equal ends and equal oblong 
sides ? " Prisms." 

Triangular Prism. — How many oblong sides has this 
prism ? " Three." 

What is the shape of its ends ? " Triangles." 
If its ends are triangles, how many sides has 
it? " Three sides." 

Then we might call it a three-sided prism ; but 
it has also another name, which means three-sided prism. 
The other name is triangular prism. It is called a tri- 
angular prism because its ends are triangles. 

Square Prism. — How many oblong sides has this 
prism? "Four." 

What is the shape of its ends ? " Squares." 
If its ends are squares, how many sides has 
it ? " Four sides." 

Then we might call it % four-sided prism ; but 
this also has another name. Can you give me a good 
name for this prism ? *' Square prism." 

SECOND STEP.— PEISMS. 

Taking a triangular prism, and holding it so that the 
pupils can not see its shape, the teacher says, I hold in 
my hand a solid figure^ having three equal oblong sides, 
and tioo equal triangular ends ; what is it ? "A trian- 
gular prism." 




LESSONS ON PKISMS. 



131 



Now I hold a solid figure, having four equal oblong 
sides aiid two equal square ends; what is it? "A 
square prism." 

Placing the three-sided prism in the ha,nds of a pupil, 
the teacher says, Tell me the name of this solid, and 
why it is called so. " It is a triangular prism, because 
it has three equal oblong sides and two equal triangu- 
lar ends." 

Placing a four-sided prism in the hands of another 
pupil, request the name of the solid, and the reason for 
calling it, thus : " This is a square prism, because it has 
four equal oblong sides and two equal square ends." 

Hexagonal Prism.— How many sides has this solid? 
" Six." 
What is the shape of each side ? " Oblong." 
Are the ends equal ? " They are." 
Are these oblong sides all equal? "They 
are." 

Then what may we call this solid ? « A jpnsm." 
What is the shape of the ends of this prism ? " Six- 
sided." 

Then what may we call this prism? "A six-sided 

prism." 

Very good. There is a name for a figure having six 
equal sides ; can you tell me what it is ? "A hexagon." 
Then we may call this solid a hexago7ial iJrism. Why 
do we call this a hexagonal prism? "Because it has 
six equal oblong sides, and equal hexagonal ends." 

How many kinds of prisms can you name ? " Three." 

What are they? "The triangular; the square; the 
hexagonal." 

Why do you call one of them a triangular prism? 




132 



PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



" Because it has three equal oblong sides and equal tri- 
angular ends." 

Why do you call one of them hexagonal ? " Because 
it has six equal oblong sides and equal hexagonal 
ends. 

If a solid had equal ends and five equal oblong sides, 
what would you call it? "A five-sided prism." 

Suppose a solid had eight equal oblong sides and 
equal ends, what would you call it ? " An eight-sided 
prism." 

Did you ever see a glass prism? How many sides 
had it ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

The figures given here represent the shape in which pasteboard may- 
be cut to fold into the form of a triangular prism ; also for a square 
prism. 




Triangular Prism. Square Prism. 

The teacher can add much to the interest of these lessons by show- 
ing the pupils how they may cut out paper or pasteboard so that it 
may be folded into the forms of triangular and square prisms. 

The following figures represent the shapes of pieces of pasteboard 
or paper that may be folded into triangular and square pyramids. 




sy 




LESSONS ON PYRAMIDS. 133 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

PYEAMIDS. 

FIRST STEP.— SHAPES OF PYRAMIDS. 

Before commencing tlie lessons on pyramids, the 
teacher should provide prisms, cubes, cone, and square 
and tria'ngular pyramids for the illustrations. 

Taking up a square prism, the teacher might ask, 
How many sides has this solid ? " Four." 

What is the shape of its sides ? " Oblong." 

Taking up a square pyramid, the teacher may ask, 
How many sides has this solid? "Four." 

What is the shape of its sides ? " Triangles." 

Holding up a triangular pyramid, the teacher might 
ask. How many sides has this solid ? " Three." 

What is the shape of its sides ? " Triangles." 

Placing the square prism, the square pyramid, the tri- 
angular pyramid, and a cone on the table, each standing 
upright, the teacher may ask, What do we call the part 
on which each of these objects stand? "The base." 

What is the shape of the base of the pyramid? 
" Square." 

What is the shape of the base of the cone ? " Cir- 
cular." 

What is the shape of the bases of the other objects? 
" One is square, and the other is triangular." 

Very good. Now observe the tops of these solids ; 
are these alike ? 

" ISTo ; the top of the prism is square, the tops of the 
others are points." 



134 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



How many of these solids have triangular sides that 
meet in a point at the top ? " Two." 

I will now tell you what we call all solids that have 
triangular sides which meet in a point at the top ; they 
are called pyramids. A pyramid is a solid body hav- 
ing a base J and triangular sides meeting in a point at 
the top. 




SECOND STEP.— PYRAMIDS. 

Triangular Pyramid. — How many sides has this solid? 
"Three." 

What is the shape of its sides ? " Tri- 
angles." 

What is the shape of its base? "Trian- 
gular." 

What is the name of a solid having triangles for its 
sides which meet in a point at the top ? "A pyramid." 
Since this pyramid has only three sides, what name 
may we give it ? "A triangular pyramid." 

Why do you call this a triangular pyramid ? " Be- 
cause it has only three triangular sides." 

You might say it is a triangular pyramid because its 
base is triayigular. 



Square Pyramid. — How many sides has this solid? 
"Four." 

What is the name of a solid having tri- 
angular sides which meet in a j^oint at the 
top ? "A pyramid." 
What is the shape of its base? "Square." 
Since the base of this pyramid is square, what name 
may we give it? "A square pyramid," 




LESSONS ON PYKAMIDS. 135 

"Why do you call it a square pyramid ? " Because it 
has a square base, and four triangular sides meeting in 
a point at the top." 

Suppose I had a solid with a base, and five equal tri- 
angular sides meeting in a point at the top; what might 
we call it? "A five-sided pyramid." 

I hold in my hand a solid having a triangular base, 
and three triangular sides meeting in a point at the top; 
what is its name ? "A triangular pyramid." 

I hold in my hands a solid having a square base, and 
four triangular sides meeting in a point at the top; 
what is its name ? "A square pyramid." 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

The teacher may add much interest to the lesson on the pyramids 
by telling the pupils about the Pyramids of Egypt. If the pupils are 
not familiar with the location of Egypt, it may be pointed out on the 
map of the world. 

The children may be told that along the banks of the Nile, for a 
distance of seventy miles, may be seen a great number of pp-amids 
built of stone and brick. The largest of these is nearly eight hundred 
feet square, covering a space of more than twelve acres ; and the top 
\&four hundred and eighty feet in height. 

The base of such a pyramid would cover nearly all the space from 
Fourteenth to Eighteenth Street, between Fifth and Sixth Avenues, 
in New York City ; and its top would reach two hundred feet above 
the steeple of Trinity Church. 

It is said to have taken a thousand men twenty years to build this 
pyi-amid. The pyramids were built many thousand years ago, by 
kings of Egypt, as monumental tombs. 



136 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO SUGGEST 

DESCEIPTIONS OF OBJECTS BY THEIE 
FOEMS. 

When children have become familiar with most of 
the forms of the preceding lessons, they should be 
trained to a practical application of this knowledge in 
describing the shape of objects. Such exercises will 
serve as a review of the lessons on Form, and make 
those lessons more useful to these children when they 
have left school to engage in the common affairs of life. 

In giving these lessons, it should be remembered that 
the object in view is not to teach the children to tell 
" all about" the objects — the names of the parts, the 
colors, what they are made of, their uses, etc. In these 
lessons, all that should be required of the children is to 
tell the shape of familiar objects. 

The following descriptions are given as suggestions 
for conducting this class of lessons. 

A Broom. — The common broom is triangular in shape, 
and its handle is cylindrical. The handle usually tapers 
slightly toward the top. 

A Pin. — A common pin has a head somewhat like an 
oblate spheroid, a cylindrical, straight body, and a con- 
ical point. 

A Slate. — A slate has two plane oblong surfaces, sur- 
rounded by an oblong frame with sqiiare or round cor- 
ners. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF OBJECTS BY THEIR FORMS. 137 

A Table. — A table has a flat oblong top, with narrow 
oblong sides and ends, and four cylindrical legs. 

A Table-knife. — A tahle-knife has a narrow oblong 
blade, with a curved end, and a handle usually ^^th 
four oblong sides. 

A Spoon. — A spoon has an oval concave bowl, a nar- 
row, flat handle, which widens toward the end opposite 
the bowl. Sometimes the part of the handle opposite 
the bowl has an oblong shape. The handle is usually 
curved at the end. 

Blackboard Rubber. — A hlacJchoard riibher is oblong. 
Some have curved handles on the back. The face is 
covered with wool. 

A Numeral Frame. — A numeral frame is oblong, and 
has several parallel wires extending lengthwise through 
it. On the wires are movable balls of various colors. 
It has a handle fixed in the centre of one of the long 
sides. 

A Chair. — A chair has four curved cylindrical legs; 
several cylindrical bars, or rounds; a seat somewhat in 
the form of a square, with curved corners and a curved 
side. It has a back of an oblong form, with curved 
sides and top. The back slants backward slightly. 

A Wood Stove. — A loood stove has an oblong top and 
bottom, and sides, with ends nearly square. It has an 
oval hearth and a square door. It stands on four curved 
legs. The pipe is a hollow cylinder. 



138 PRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

A Tin Cup. — A tin cup has a flat circular base, with a 
body like a hollow cylinder. It has a curved handle on 
its side. 

A Wagon Wheel. — A wagon wheel is circular, with a 
barrel-shaped hub for its centre, from which spokes that 
are somewhat cylindrical radiate to the circular rim. 
An iron ring or hoop, called a tire, forms the circum- 
ference. 



COLOR. 

IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE EYE. 

The eye is the organ of the most important of our 
senses. It is the window of the mind, through which 
all knowledge of colors, shape, size, position, reading, 
and many of the qualities of objects, must be obtained. 
Sight is the most nearly perfect of all our senses ; its 
conceptions of properties of objects are more vivid and 
complete than ideas of the same properties when con- 
veyed to the mind by any one of the other senses. 
Horace understood the importance of this sense when 
he sang : 

** Sounds which address the ear are lost, and die 
In one short hour ; but that which strikes the eye 
Lives long upon the mind ; the faithful sight 
Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light." 

This important fact should be heeded by instructors 
of the young, and greater attention paid to teaching 
the properties of objects by sight, and less to teaching 
mere words about these properties by the sense of hear- 
ing. The subject now under consideration — color — is 
emphatically one that must be learned through the 
sense of sight. Color can • never be learned by means 
of words alone. No description will convey any idea 
of color to one who has always been blind. 

A blind man once told me that the best idea of black 
which he ever received was from a remark made to him 
one day by his little sister. She was describing some 
object that was black. Her mother, hearing her, re- 



140 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

marked, "Your brother can not understand you; he 
does not know what black is." " Don't you know how 
black looks, brother ? It looks like the darkest night 
that you ever saw," said the little sister. Nothing 
could have been more simple and better adapted to 
convey the idea of black to a blind man, yet, as he did 
not know the difference between darkness and light, it 
gave him no definite conception of black. 

Notwithstanding a knowledge of color is important 
in the various avocations of life, and ia nice discrimina- 
tion of it is a source of great pleasure to the mind, yet 
the subject is generally neglected in our schools. 

Color Blindness. — It is a well-known fact that the 
power of distinguishing color is possessed in very dif- 
ferent degrees by many individuals. Some can scarcely 
discriminate shades of the same color ; others can not 
discern colors the most strikingly opposed to each oth- 
er. Some persons have been known who could distin- 
guish only black and white, all the intervening colors 
appearing as shades of gray. Many instances have 
been known where individuals could not distinguish 
red cherries from green leaves except by their shape. 

It is said that a certain English naval officer chose a 
blue coat and red trowsers, believing that they were 
both of the same color. A story is told of one tailor 
who had no perception of color, that mended a black 
silk vest with a piece of crimson color ; and of another 
tailor who put a collar of red cloth on a blue coat. 

The celebrated chemist, Dr. Dalton, thought the red 
gown in which he was installed as Doctor of Civil Law 
at Oxford was a blue one. Some of his friends, in order 
to test this peculiarity of his vision, substituted red 



COLOE. 141 

stockings for those he usually wore. The doctor put 
them on without noticing any thing remarkable in their 
appearance, and when his attention was directed to 
them he only said they looked rather dirty. One day 
Dalton dropped a piece of red sealing-wax in the grass, 
and had great difficulty in finding it again. 

During the last twenty years this subject has attract- 
ed the attention of scientific men, and many observa- 
tions have been made, and numerous facts collected per- 
taining to this phenomenon, so puzzling to both philos- 
ophers and physiologists. It has been found that this 
condition of sight is much more common than was gen- 
erally supposed. Many persons who are thus afflicted 
remain ignorant of this defect in their sight until mis- 
takes or accidents in their business lead them to dis- 
cover it. 

Bartholomew, the sculptor, could not distinguish be- 
tween a crimson curtain and a green one. Yet he be- 
gan his artistic career as a portrait painter, and once 
gave the cheeks of a female sitter a hue of bright green. 
He put the two pigments upon his palette, and mistook 
the green for the red, and did not discover his mistake 
until it was pointed out to him. Yet, blind as lie was 
to the differences of color, he had the most exquisite 
perception of the beauties oi form. 

Weavers of silk have been compelled to give up their 
trade because they could not distinguish colors. On 
one occasion a Swiss artist was called to paint a por- 
trait by candle-light, and he used yellow for pink in 
lading on the flesh tints. 

An English engineer ran his train into a freight 
train on which the usual red signal of danger had been 
placed. During his examination it was discovered that 



142 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

he was color-bliucl, and could not distinguish red from 
green. 

Out of forty boys that were examined in a school in 
Berlin, five were found who could not discriminate com- 
mon colors. From calculations based on various exam- 
inations made in England and Scotland, it appeared 
that one person out of every fifteen was unable to dis- 
tinguish all of the ordinary colors ; one in fifty-five con- 
founded red with green ; one in sixty brown with green ; 
one in forty-six blue with green. 

Of the three primary colors, red appears to be the 
most difficult to be distinguished ; it is the distracting 
color of the three. Some persons can not see it at all 
as a color, for it appears to them as black, but most 
commonly it is mistaken for green. Yellow is the color 
which least frequently escapes perception. There are 
but few persons, even among those who are called col- 
or-blind, that do not see yellow perfectly. A pure blue 
is in the next degree least likely to be mistaken, and 
with some it is the most vivid color of the three. Among 
the secondary colors, green is the most difficult to rec- 
ognize. Thus it appears that red and green are the two 
colors which the color-blind most frequently fail to dis- 
tinguish, yet it so happens that these are the two colors 
chiefly used as signals on railroads and ships. This 
fact renders it highly important that every person em- 
ployed on railroads or shij^s, whose duties have any re- 
lation to signals by color, should be carefully examined 
in his ability to discriminate colors accurately. With- 
out proper attention to this matter, a fearful catastrophic 
might occur from mistaking a signal implying danger 
for one denoting safety. 

The cause of color-blindness is unknown. The most 



COLOR. 143 

careful observations have thus far failed to detect any 
difference between the eyes of those who can readily 
discriminate all colors, and the eyes of those who are 
color-blind. Possibly what appears to be a permanent 
physical defect may yet be found to exist, in many 
cases, in consequence of undeveloped dormant powers 
of the sense of sight. Who can say that special train- 
ing of the eye, during early childhood, in distinguishing 
prominent colors, might not remove many of these de- 
fects in discerning color? Certainly the possibilities 
of the case, and the great importance of knowing wheth- 
er such defects of vision do or do not exist in our chil- 
dren before their avocations for life have been chosen, 
makes attention to this matter one of much conse- 
quence. 

How far this remarkable defect in distinguishing col- 
ors can be remedied by early training and careful edu- 
cation of the eye, it is impossible to answer from pres- 
ent experience; but we know that by cultivation the 
ear may be rendered much more cajjable of perceiving 
and distinguishing sounds. Judging then from anal- 
ogy, we may reasonably suppose that the eye also, by 
proper training, might be greatly improved in its power 
of discriminating colors. At all events, it is of sufficient 
importance and probability to deserve greater atten- 
tion, and to render it highly desirable that the subject 
of color should have a place in school training. 



144 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 

FOR THE TEACHER. 

All colors exist between the extremes of light and darkness. These 
extremes are represented by white on one side and black on the other. 
Light and darkness are opposite conditions. All colors appear differ- 
ent in sunlight. All colors appear alike in darkness. "Without light 
there can be no color. Sunlight contains all colors, except those pro- 
duced by combinations of white or black with other colors. 

All the colors contained in sunlight may be seen in the rainbow. 
Sunlight can be separated by a glass prism into the colors of the rain- 
bow — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple. This fact was 
discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. These seven colors are called pris- 
matic colors. They furnish the true standards for artists and color- 
ists, and a key to the whole science of colors and coloring. 

Since the discovery made by Newton that sunlight can be separated 
into seven colors, it has been ascertained that four of these colors — 
orange, green, purple, and indigo — can be produced by mixing together 
two or more of the other three — red, yellow, blue. It has also been 
found that red, yelloio, and blue can not be produced by any mixture 
of the other colors. Because of this fact, these three are called pri- 
mary colors. The colors that can be produced by mixing two primary 
colors are called secondary colors. 

If we could obtain perfectly pure red, yellow, and blue pigments, and 
mix the three completely in their proper proportions, they would pro- 
duce a white. But a mixture of the best pigments which are known 
produce only a whitish gi'ay. 

Ultramarine is one of the purest representatives of a primary color 
known ; its darkest shades and lightest tints are pure blue. No paint 
or coloring material of red or yellow has been produced without a 
slight mixture of one of the other colors. Even carmine, the purest 
type of the prismatic red that color-makers have produced, contains 
some yellow. The color obtained by purest chrome yellow, or by gam- 
boge, may be taken as the best representative of the prismatic yellow. 
Yet so far do these materials for red and yellow fall short of being 



FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 145 

perfect primary colors, that a mixture of the three representatives of 
the primary colors produces only a light gray. However, for practical 
purposes, carviine, chrome yellow, and ultramarine may be taken for the 
standards of red, yellow, and blue. 

By mixing black with any color, it becomes darker, and is therefore 
called a shade of that color. 

By mixing white with any color, it becomes lighter, and is therefore 
called a tint of that color. 

Worsteds are dyed so perfectly that all shades and tints of each of 
the colors— red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple— from nearly black 
to nearly white, may be obtained, in which no more trace of either of 
the other six colors can be found than, appears in the color before the 
black or the white were added to it. By counting each shade and tint 
thus produced as a color, the number of reds that could be distinguished 
by a well- trained eye would be about twenty-four, and the number that 
could be perceived of each of the other colors would range from twenty 
to twenty-four. 

The teacher may be asked, Why does grass appear green ? Why 
are some apples red ? Why are some flowers yellow and others blue? 
Probably the best reply would be the usual scientific answer— a// bodies 
absorb certain colors and reflect others: thus, if a body is red, it absorbs 
the yellow and blue rays, and reflects the red ; if yellow, it absorbs the 
red and blue rays, and reflects the yellow ; if blue, it absorbs the red 
and yellow rays, and reflects the blue ; if green, it absorbs the red rays, 
and reflects the yellow and blue ; and so with the others : the colors 
which the body appears to possess are reflected, the other colors are 
absorbed. 

CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS. 

Primary Colors.— Red, yellow, blue. 

The primary colors can not be produced by mixing any other colors. 

Mixing two primary colors will produce a secondary color. Mixing 
red and yellow will produce an orange color ; yellow and blue, a green ; 
red and blue, a purple. 

Secondary Colors.— Orange, green, purple. 
Mixing two secondary colors, or three primary ones in the propor- 
G 



146 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

tion of two parts of one color and one part of each of the other two, 
produces a tertiary color. 

Tertiary Colors. — Citrine, olive, russet. 

The various combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary 
colors, together with black and white, produce the 

Irregular Common Colors. — Browns, claret, chocolate, auburn, 
chestnut, snuff, drab, gray, slate, etc. 

Shade. — Any gradation produced by mixing hlack with a color, so 
as to render it darker than the original color, is called a shade of that 
color. Some shades may be made by mixing a dark color with a light 
one, where a darker color can be produced without changing the char- 
acter of the light color so much as to destroy its original color. 

Tint. — A gradation produced by mixing white with a color, so as 
to render it much lighter than the original color, is called a tint of 
that color. 

Hue. — A hue is produced by combining two colors in unequal pro- 
portions ; as a little yellow mixed with pure red gives a scarlet, a hue 
of red. A little red mixed with yellow gives a reddish hue of yellow. 
A little red mixed with blue gives a reddish hue of blue, a color that 
inclines to a violet. A little yellow mixed with green gives a yellow- 
ish hue of green. This term may be applied to colors that are lighter, 
as well as to those that are darker than the original color. It will be 
observed that the color which appears most prominent after mixing 
two colors gives the name to the hue, as a hue of red. This may 
mean a red with a little yellow mixed with it, or a red with a little 
blue in it ; but a yellowish hue of red indicates what color has been 
mixed with the red to make its hue. 

Tinge. — A slight coloring or tincture, which may be perceived in 
addition to the principal color, is called a tinge. If a green has a 
slight coloring of yellow, it may be said the green has a tinge of yel- 
low. 



FACTS ABOUT COLOE. 



147 



COMBINATIONS OF COLORS. 

For illustrations showing how colors may be produced by mixing 
the primary ones, see the Plate of Colors fronting the title-page. 
Primary. Secondary. Secondary. Tertiary. 



Red 
and 
Yellow 
Yellow 
and 
Blue 
Red 
and 
Blue 



produce Orange. 



produce Green. 



produce Purple. 



Orange 

and 
Green 
Green 

and 
Purple 
Orange 

and 
Pui*ple 



produce Citrine. 



produce Olive. 



produce Russet. 



DESCRIPTIONS OF COLORS. 

The following familiar descriptions of colors are intended to convey 
as definite knowledge of standards for the several colors, their shades, 
hues, and tints, and names for each, as it would be desirable to teach 
children. It is not claimed that these are entirely perfect, yet they 
are sufficiently accurate for all the purposes of training children to dis- 
tinguish colors readily. It is nearly impossible to arrange the several 
names employed by artists, dyers, colorists, deal'^.rs in fancy goods, etc., 
to designate their various ideas of color, so that a single teim shall rep- 
resent the same idea to each class of persons. It is no less difficult to 
describe a color so that the description shall correspond entirely with 
the conceptions formed of it even by those who are familiar with colors 
as used in their own occupations. 

But there are so many who never obtain any correct conceptions of 
colors, nor the ability to describe them with even a tolerable degree of 
accuracy, because they never were taught sfty standards for distinguish- 
ing colors, it becomes a matter of great importance that a foundation 
for a knowledge of color should be laid in childhood by fixing these 
starting-points. With a proper early training in distinguishing colors, 
it will become an easy matter to attain minute and definite knowledge 
of color in later life, in any department of busmess which may re- 
quire it. 



148 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

REDS. 
Pure Red. — Carmine — the purest deep red ; the standard pri- 
mary red ; the color of Chinese vermilion. 

Shades of Red. — Morone, or Maroon— a dark crimson ; the 
color of an unripe mulberry ; a crimson darkened with black. It is 
sometimes classed with the browns. 

Crimson — a pure red darkened with a deep blue, giving it a shade 
of red with a purplish tmge. This color may often be seen on red 



Garnet Color — a deep red, the color of the mineral known as the 
carbuncle of the ancients. 

Magenta — a shade of red lighter than crimson ; a bluish-red. 

Damask Color — a rich dark red, darker than crimson ; the color 
of a damask rose. 

Venetian Red — a name commonly applied to a paint made of 
earth. It is a dark, dull red, approaching the red-browns. 

Hues of Red. — Scarlet— a bright red, lighter than carmine ; a 
pure red made lighter by a slight mixture of yellow. 

Cherry — a bright red lighter than a scarlet. 

Vermilion — a yellowish-red paint ; it contains more yellow than 
scarlet, and may be called an orange-red. This is the color of com- 
mon vermilion ; the Chinese vermilion has the color of pm-e carmine. 

Turkey Red — the deep red seen in calico and woolen goods when 
dyed with madder. 

Copper Color — the color of copper ; a pale red slightly tinged 
with yellow. 

Tints of Red. — Pink — A tint of crimson ; a crimson color made 
very light by mixing white^ith it. 

Rose — a tint of carmine ; a carmine color made very light by mix- 
ing white with it. 

Flesh Color — a tint of scarlet. 



FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 149 



YELLOWS. 



Pure Yellcw. — Chrome Yellow, or Chromine — a bright yel- 
low color ; a fair standard for primary yellow. The yellow produced 
by gamboge^ a gum used for yellow iu water-colors, is a good standard 
for a primary yellow. 

Shades of YelloTV. — Citrine — a dark greenish -yellow; the 
color of the fruit of the citron-tree. 

Saffron— a deep dark yellow ; the color of the saffron flowers. 

Hues of Yellovr.— Lemon— a yellow slightly tinged with green; 
the color of a lemon. 

Sulphur— a yellow with a bluish tinge. 

Golden Color— the color of gold ; a bright yellow with a reddish 
tinge. 

Canary — a light clirome yellow ; the bright yellow of the canary- 
bird. 

Ochre — a pale dusky yellow ; a kind of earth used for paint. 

Tints of Yellow. — Straw — a tint of pure yellow ; chrome yel- 
low made very light by mixing white with it. 
Primrose — a tint of yellow lighter than straw. 
Flaxen— a pale tint of yellow, resembling the color of flax. 



BLUES. 
Pure Blue. — Ultramarine — ^the purest blue. A very fine rich 
blue, foraierly obtained from the mineral lapis lazuli. 

Shades of Blue.— Indigo — a very dark shade of blue with a 
purplish tinge ; a deep blue containing a little red, and made darker 
with black ; a color obtained from the indigo plant. 

Mazarine — a deep reddish-blue. 

Prussian Blue — a dark blue with a slight greenish tinge. 

Plum Color— a dark pui-plish-blue. 



150 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Hues of Blue. — Cobalt Blue — a pure blue, somewhat lighter 
than the ultramarine, and much lighter than the Prussian blue. 

Tdrquois — a beautiful blue, the color of this precious mineral. 
Sometimes it has a greenish tinge. 

French Blue — a bright blue with a violet hue. 

Tints of Blue. — Light Blue — a tint of ultramarine. A pure 
blue made lighter with white. 

Azure, Cerulean, or Sky Blue — the clear blue of the sky. A 
light tint of pure blue. 



ORANGE. 

Pure Orange. — Orange — the color of a ripe orange ; a reddish- 
yellow. Equal parts of pure red and yellow will produce a red-orange 
color. Three parts of red and five parts of yellow will give a good 
orange color. 

Shades of Orange. — Dark Amber, or Amberine — a very 
deep reddish-yellow ; a deep orange made a little darker with black. 
Amber is a fossil gum, found on sea-coasts. It is obtained on the 
coast of the Baltic Sea. Some varieties of this gum are semi-trans- 
parent, and of a lighter reddish-yellow or orange. 

Oak Color — a shade of orange ; the color of polished oak wood. 

Hues of Orange. — Salmon— a light orange with a golden tinge ; 
the color of a salmon fish. 

Buff — a light yellowish-orange. 

Tints of Orange.— Cream Color— a very light tint of orange 
tinged with yellow. Orange color made very light with white. The 
color of cream. 



GREENS. 
Pure Green. — Green — the brightest grass -green. Eight parts 
of blue and five parts of yellow will produce a good green. Equal 
parts of blue and yellow will make a common green. 



FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 151 

Shades of Green. — Olive Green — a broAvnish-green ; the color 
of an olive. This shade of green may be produced by mixing yellow- 
ish-green with brown. 

Bottle Green— a dark, dirty yellowish-green ; the color of bottles 
made of coarse common glass. 

Hues of Green. — Emerald — a very rich, brilliant green ; the 
color of the emerald, a precious stone. 

Pea Green— a light yellowish-green, the color of green peas. 

Sea Green— a flxint green with a bluish tinge ; a color seen in deep 
water. 

Tints of Green. — Bertline— a delicate pale green, the color of 
the beryl or aqua marine. 

Tea Color, or Tea Green— a tint of olive-green ; olive-green 
made very light by mixing white with it. 



PURPLES. 
Pure Purple.— Purple— a color produced by mixing equal parts 
of pure blue and pure red. A purple with the blue predominating is 
made by mixing three parts of red with eight parts of blue. Such a, 
purple might be called a dark violet. 

Shades of Purple. — Royal Purple— a very rich dark purple. 
This color was formerly obtained from a sticky liquid found in small 
quantities in a kind of shell-fish. In consequence of being very diffi- 
cult to obtain, it was so expensive that none but the most wealthy 
could wear cloth dyed Avith this color. This was the color of the 
robes worn by Roman emperors. It was the emblem of power — the 
sign of royalty. 

Amaranth — a dark red-purple, the color of the flower of the ama- 
ranth. 

Hues of Purple. — Violet — a purple with a blue tinge. In this 
color the blue appears more prominent than the red. This color 
might be called a purple-blue. The amethyst has a beautiful blue-vio- 
let color. 



152 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Mauve — a delicate light purple. One of the aniline colors made 
from coal tar. 

Amethyst — a violet with a bluish hue. 

Tints of Purple. — Lilac — a tint of purple; a purple made light- 
er by mixing white with it ; the color of lilac blossoms. 

Lavender — a light tint of violet ; a violet made much lighter by 
mixing white with it. 



BROWNS. 

The browns are usually composed of red, yellow, and black, in vari- 
ous proportions, and sometimes modified by the addition of white. 
These colors are known by various names — dark brown, oUve-hroivn, 
deep brown, red-broivn, gold-brown, light broivn, umber, chestnut, au- 
burn, russet, hazel, chocolate, etc., according to the prevailing color. 
It is generally a tawny or dusky color. 

Shades of Brown. — Umber — a very dark or blackish-brown 
paint, the color of burnt umber. Haw umber has a yellowish tinge. 
Chestnut — a dark shade of brown, the color of a chestnut. 
Chocolate — a dark reddish-brown, the color of chocolate. 
Puce — a dark or purplish-brown, the color of a flea. 

Hues of Brown. — Auburn — a reddish-brown ; this name is ap- 
plied to a color of hair. 

Russet — a light brown with a yellowish tinge. This color is com- 
posed of two parts red, and one part each of blue and yellow. 

Hazel — a light brown, the color of the hazel-nut. This name is 
used in describing the color of eyes. 

Snuff — a yellow-brown, the color of snuff. 

Claret — a purplish, light red-brown, the color of claret. 

Tints of Brown. — Brunette — a very light brownish color ; a 
name given to dark complexions. 

Drab — a very light dull brown, of a yellowish tinge. 

Tan — a light yellowish-brown. 

Stone Color — a very light tint of brown. 



FACTS ABOUT COLOK. 153 

GRAYS. 

The grays are usually composed of black and white, modified by a 
mixture of red, yellow, or blue. 

Slate — a bluish-gray or a reddish-gray. 

Pearl Gray — a very light silvery-gray. 

Steel Color — a dark bluish-gray. 

French Gray — a grayish color somewhat resembling a drab. 



WHITE. 

White is the representative of light ; it is also a modifier of colors. 
Sometimes it is said that white is not a color, but only a composition 
of all colors, because it is composed of the seven prismatic colors, as 
in sunlight. But to the child white is just as much a reality as red 
or blue. Since, by universal usage, this term is employed to distin- 
guish the color seen in pure snow, and all objects having the same 
color, it is just as correct to use the word white^ as the name of a col- 
or, as the word green or yellow. And I see no good reason why we 
may not call white a color as well as purple. 

White substances reflect all the rays of sunlight ; red substances re- 
flect the red rays of light, and absorb all others ; yellow substances re- 
flect the yellow rays, and absorb all others ; green substances reflect 
the green — or blue and yellow — rays, and absorb all others. Black 
absorbs all the colors of sunlight, and reflects none of them. 

White — the color of pure snow. 

Silver — the color of silver ; a bluish-white. 

Pearl — usually a bluish or silvery white ; sometimes a pinkish- 
white. 

Milk-white — a white with a slight yellowish tinge, the color of 
milk. 



BLACK. 

Black is the opposite of light ; it is the representative of darkness. 
White reflects all colors ; black absorbs all colors. For the same 
reason that I would use the word white as the name of a color, I 
would use the word black to indicate the color of coal, 
G2 



154 PPJMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Although it is said that hlach is no color — that it only indicates the 
absence of all colors — yet, for all the ordinary distinctions of objects, 
it is just as much a color as blue or purple, and it may be so treated 
in the lessons on color in primary schools. 

Black — the color of coal or jet. 



COLORS OF ANIMALS. 
Black Horse — a horse with a black body and legs, and black 
mane and tail. 

Brown Horse — a horse with a dark brown body, and black legs, 
mane, and tail. 

Chestnut Horse— a horse with a brown body and legs, and brown 
mane and tail. There are dark and light chestnut colors. 

Bay Horse — a horse with a reddish-brown body, and black legs, 
mane, and tail. Occasionally a bay horse has brown legs. There are 
dark and Hght bays. 

Sorrel Horse — a horse with a yellowish-brown body and legs, and 
usually a hght yellowish-brown mane and tail. 

Hoan Horse — a horse with red and white hairs mixed, but with 
the red hairs predominating. 

Cream - colored Horse — a horse with a yellowish, very light 
brown body and legs, and generally a yellowish-white mane and tail. 

Dun — a very light dull chestnut, darker than a cream -color. 
Horses of this color usually have light mane and tail. This color is 
also seen on cattle. 

Gray Horse — a horse with brown or black hairs mixed with white 
ones, but with the white hairs greatly predominating. The legs of gray 
horses are usually darker than the bodies. An iron-gray has more 
dark hairs. 



FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 155 

Pied Horse — a spotted horse, covered with small spots of differ- 
ent colors. Some dogs are pied. 

"White Horse — a horse with a white body and legs, and white 
inane and tail. 

Red Cow — a cow with a reddish-brown body and legs. 

Brindle Ox— An ox with black and bro-wn hairs in stripes, or 
light and dark brown hairs in spots or stripes. 

Fawn Color — a light tint of yellowish-brown.' 



APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING COLOR. 

Color is a subject which can be taught Only by seeing it. The 
teacher must depend upon visible illustrations for giving definite ideas 
of colors. It is therefore very important that "Charts of Color,"* a 
"Box of Colored Cards," a "Set of Color Cubes," worsteds and pieces 
of silk of various colors, sealing-wax, wafers, colored papers, flowers 
and fruits in their season, a glass prism, colored crayons for the black- 
board, etc. , should be provided for this purpose. 

If the teacher can not obtain more suitable apparatus for illustra- 
ting colors, she may procure a sheet of perforated pasteboard, and work 
upon it squares of about two inches by two inches with colored worst- 
eds, leaving inch spaces between the squares. In this way very good 
illustrations of colors may be provided. 

The Frontispiece of this book will serve as a guide in selecting the 
principal colors. " The Classification of Colors" and " The Descrip- 
tions of Colors" will also furnish information to aid in this matter. 

* "Charts of Colors" and a "Box of Colored Cards" have been prepared for 
illustrating colors, and published by Harper & Brothers. 



156 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

ORDER FOR LESSONS ON COLOR. 

First Series. 
The First, Second, and Third Steps of Resemblances and Differences 
in Color may be taken during the period in which the children are 
learning to read in a Frimer. 

Second Series. 

Lessons on Naming Colors : First Step, Naming Colors at Sight ; 
Second Step, Naming Objects by Colors ; Third Step, Grouping Names 
of Objects by Color ; Exercises with Color and Form combined. These 
lessons may be given during the time that the children are learning to 
read in a First Reader. 

Third Series. 
Ideas of Standard Colors : First Step, Red, Yellow, and Blue ; 
Second Step, Orange, Green, and Purple ; Third Step, White and 
Black. Idea of Shades and Tints of Color : First and Second Steps ; 
Idea of Hues of Color ; Idea of Classes of Colors, and Grouping Colors 
in Classes. These lessons may be given while the pupils are learning 
to read in a Second Reader. 

Fourth Series. 
Ideas of Primary and Secondary Colors, Mixing Colors, and Colors 
of Animals, may be given while the pupils are reading in the last half 
of a Second Reader, or in an easy Third Reader. 



KESEMBLANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN COLOR. 157 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

EESEMBLANCE AND DIFFEEENCE IN 
COLOR 

EIRST STEP.— DISTINGUISHING COLORS. 

Having provided cards of several colors from the 
Box of Colors, also pieces of worsteds, silks, etc., the 
teacher may request the children to notice whether the 
colors look alike as the cards are shown. The cards 
may be held with their white sides toward the pupils, 
then with their colored sides. At first cards of the 
same color may be selected, as two reds, two yellows, 
two blues, two greens, etc. Afterward cards of difier- 
ent colors may be taken, as red and yellow ; blue and 
orange ; red and green ; purple and yellow. 

After several colors have been thus shown the chil- 
dren, and they have been led to notice that the colors 
of some cards and pieces of silk and worsted are alike 
and others unlike, the teacher may request the pupils 
to say alike when two objects of the same color are 
shown, and unlike when two different colors are shown. 

Let the teacher hold the white sides of two red cards 
before the class ; the pupils may answer, " Alike." 
Then hold the red sides before the class — "Alike." 
Then two yellow cards — " Alike." Then two blue ob- 
jects — "Alike." 

The teacher may then hold a red and a blue card be- 
fore the class—" Unlike." Then a yellow and a green 
card—" Unlike." Then a red and a green card—" Un- 
like." Then the white sides of a green and a purple 



158 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

card — "Alike." Then the colored sides of the same 
cards — " Unlike," etc. 

These exercises should be varied and repeated for 
several days in classes of young children. 

The teacher may continue the exercises for training 
the children to distinguish colors by placing before 
them the " Chart of Colors," and, holding up a red card, 
say, I have a red card ; who will point to a color like it 
on the Chart ? From the pupils that raise their hands, 
intimating that they desire to point to a color like that 
of the card shown them, the teacher may select several, 
calling out one at a time, to point to the red on the 
Chart of Colors. 

The teacher may then take up a yellow card and 
proceed in the same manner ; then a blue card, and so 
on,' until the children have become familiar with red, 
yellow, blue, orange, green, and purple by sight and by 
name. 

The teacher may next take colored crayons, and make 
a broad mark with each color on the blackboard, and 
as each mark is made let the children tell its color, 
thus: "Red; green; yellow; blue; orange; purple; 
white ; green ; blue ; red," etc. 

Let pupils select a crayon, and make a mark of a 
given color, as red, blue, yellow, green, etc. 

The teacher may vary these exercises by pointing to 
a red color on the Chart, and requesting the pupils 
singly to select the same color from the cards, or worst- 
eds and silks on the table. This method may be con- 
tinued until the pupils can select all the six colors men- 
tioned above. 

Let the exercise be again changed by the teacher 
calling upon pupils to point to red colors on the Chart ; 



EESEMBLANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN COLOR. 159 

then blue color; then green color; and so on through 
yellow, i^urple, and orange. 

Next let the pupils be required to select colors by 
th'&ir names from the colored cards, worsteds, silks, etc. 

These exercises for distinguishing colors may be con- 
tinued through several lessons, extending over a period 
varying in time from two weeks to one month, accord- 
ing to the ages of the pupils and their progress. 

Ask the children how they know that all objects do 
not have the same color. 

How would all colors appear where there is no light ? 



SECOND STEP.— GROUPING COLORS. 

Children may be taught to group like colors by 
placing a red color on one end of the table and a green 
color on the other end ; then, taking up several red and 
green cards, pieces of silk and worsteds, request the 
pupils, as each piece is held before them, to tell with 
which color it should be placed ; and the teacher may 
place it with the red or the green, as the children direct. 

In small classes the children might take the colors 
and classify them in two groups, by allowing each child 
to take two or three colors, and place each with the 
group which it is alike. 

When the children have continued this exercise of 
grouping until they can readily classify any two of the 
six principal colors, a new series of exercises may be 
given with three groups of colors in each, as red, yel- 
low, blue; red, green, white; yellow, purple, white ; blue, 
orange, black, etc. ; and the pupils may be required to 
place colors in three groups in the same manner as they 
before placed them in two groups. 



ICO PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

These exercises should be continued until the pupils 
have become so familiar with red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, purple, white, black, that they can readily group 
objects of each of these colors. 

The children may now be required to arrange these 
colors in rows, like patterns given by the teacher, thus : 
Red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple ; yellow, blue, 
orange, green, red, purple ; green, red, orange, purple, 
yellow, blue. Only one pattern should be given at a 
time. 

During this step the children should not be taught 
shades and tints of colors; all these may be treated as 
reds, yellows, blues, greens, etc. 



THIRD STEP.— LIGHT AND DARK COLORS. 

The children, having become familiar with six or 
eight colors, may next be taught that the same colors 
can be light or dark. 

The teacher may point to light reds and dark reds, 
light yellows and dark yellows, light blues and dark 
blues, dark greens and light greens, on the Chart of 
Colors, and thus illustrate this fact to the class. 

Then the teacher may call upon pupils to point to 
light colors, then to dark colors, thus : 

James may point to a light red ; now to a dark red. 

Henry may point to a dark green ; now to a light 
green. 

Freddy may point to a light blue; now to a dark 
blue. 

When the children can readily point out the prin- 
cipal light and dark colors on the Chart, the teacher 
may place a white object upon one end of the table 



RESEMBLANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN COLOR. 161 

and a black one upon the other end; then say to the 
class : 

We will i^lace all the light colors with the white ob- 
ject, and all the dark colors with the black object. 
Now I wish you to look at each color as I show it to 
you, and tell me where to place it. When I show a 
color, you may say " light" if you think it belongs with 
the light colors, and " dark" if you think it should be 
placed with the dark colors. 

The teacher may now hold up very light colors and 
very dark colors, and let the children tell with which 
group each should be placed. 

Subsequently light and dark colors may be grouped 
by the children making the selection themselves from 
the colors on the table, placing each with its appro- 
priate group. 



162 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS IN 

NAMi:N^a COLOES. 

FIRST STEP.— NAMING COLORS AT SIGHT. 

After placing the Chart of Colors before the class, 
the teacher may point to the colors in groups, request- 
ing the pupils to give the name of the group, as reds, 
greens, blues, yellows, purples, oranges. 

Next the teacher may take up colored cards, pieces 
of silk, worsted, etc., and request the children to give 
the name of the color as soon as shown, as red, blue, 
green, etc. 

Another exercise may be given in which the pupils 
will be required, in the same manner, to give some of 
the other names of colors, as red, pink, yellow, straw, 
orange, cream, blue, sky-blue, green, light green, purple, 
violet, lilac. 

First the teacher may point to the color on the Chart, 
and the pupils give the name ; then she may hold up 
cards or other colored objects, and request the pupil 
to give the name of each color singly as soon as it is 
shown. 

A very valuable exercise for securing the attention 
of a large class may be introduced in connection with 
these lessons on color. The teacher, taking several of 
the square colored cards from the Box of Colors, may 
hold them up, one at a time, and ask. What is the color 
of this? What is its shape? What is the shape of 
this? What its color? 

When the pupils are able to answer readily and cor- 



LESSONS IN NAMING COLOES. 163 

rectly each question as to shape, color, etc., the teacher 
may show the card, and indicate the question by simply 
speaking the words color — shape. Let the changes be 
made rapidly from shape to color, also from one color 
to another, so as to require the most watchful attention 
on the part of the pupils to understand correctly and 
quickly, and answer promptly. 

Let the names of colors be reviewed by requiring the 
pupils to point out colors on the Chart ; also to select 
colors from objects on the table as the teacher speaks 
the name. 



SECOND STEP.— NAMING OBJECTS BY COLORS. 

To train children to apply the appropriate names to 
the* colors in articles of dress, flowers, fruits, and other 
familiar objects, let the teacher point to a red color on 
the Chart, or hold a red card before the class, and re- 
quest the pupils to mention the names of objects which 
are red. First let each child that can think of a red 
object raise a hand, and mention the name of it prompt- 
ly, in turn, as called upon by the teacher. Li subse- 
quent exercises upon the same color, each child may be 
called upon in turn to mention the name of an object 
with the given color. 

^ach color may be presented to the class in the 
same way until the pupils have learned to associate 
the right names with the colors seen in common ob- 
jects, and have also learned to observe more carefully 
what colors may be seen in the various objects around 
them. 

Other exercises for associating the names of colors 
with those seen in articles of clothing, and for leading 



1G4 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

children to a more accurate observation, may be given 
in the following manner ; 

All the children that have a blue color in any part of 
their dress may stand. Mary, what part of your dress 
is blue ? " My sack." 

Cassie, what have you that is blue ? " The ribbon 
on my head." 

Ella, what have you that is blue ? " My dress." 

Thus each child may be called upon to point out and 
tell the name of the part of dress in which the given 
color may be seen. 

Proceeding in the same Avay with the other colors, 
the teacher says : 

All the children that have red in any part of their 
dress may stand. Then let each child mention the 
name of the part, and point out the color, in turn, as 
before. 

Continue this exercise with each of the principal 
colors. 

Subsequently the teacher may mention the names of 
objects, and the children tell their colors, as. Cherries — 
"Red." Apples — "Red; green; yellow." 

You do not agree as to the color of apples ; which is 
correct ? " Some apples are red, some are green, and 
some are yellow." 

Very good ; all of you were right. What is the CQlor 
of leaves in the summer ? " Green." Of strawberries ? 
"Red." Of currants? "Red, when ripe." Of plums? 
"Red; blue; yellow; green." 

Yes ; some plums are red, some are blue, some green, 
etc. What is the color of a lemon ? of an orange ? of 
a rose ? of a violet ? 



LESSONS IN NAMING COLOllS. 165 



THIRD STEP.— GROUPING NAMES OF OBJECTS BY 
COLOR. 

For a class that can read well in a First Reader, the 
teacher may give exercises in grouping the names of 
objects by their colors, thus leading them to observe 
the colors of objects more carefully. 

Let the teacher write on the blackboard the names 
of some of the principal colors, thus : 

Bed. Yelloio. Blue. White. 

Then the teacher may request the pupils to name 
objects that are red, and, as each pupil mentions a 
name, the teacher may write it under the word red. 
When several red objects have been mentioned, the 
nam'es of those that are yellow may be given and writ- 
ten in a like manner. Then those that are blue, and 
so on. 

The lesson on each group of colors should be repeat- 
ed three or four times, to lead the children to extend 
their obsei'vations, and become able to give longer lists 
of objects having the colors than they could think of on 
the first presentation of the lesson. 

These exercises may be continued with similar groups 
of other colors, until the children can readily group the 
names of objects representing eight or ten colors. 

When the pupils are able to write readily on their 
slates, this exercise might be varied by requiring them 
to write a list of names of red objects, green objects, 
blue objects, etc., and then ascertain Avhich pupil can 
write the lousiest list of each color. 



16G PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



EXERCISES WITH 

COLOE AND FOEM COMBmED. 

When the pupils have become somewhat familiar 
with the common colors introduced in the preceding 
lessons, exercises may be arranged which will furnish 
an interesting variety for the children by combining 
colors with plane forms. 

Let ten more pieces of pasteboard or thick paper be 
procured than there are pupils in the class. Each piece 
may be about four inches wide and six inches long. 
Also procure colored papers which are good represent- 
atives of the six colors — red, yellow, blue, orange, 
green, purple. 

If the class contains thirty pupils, cut each of the fol- 
lowing forms ixom.four of the colors represented by the 
papers. If the class contains forty pupils, cut each form 
fromj^ve colors. If there are fifty pupils, cut each form 
from six of the colors ; and so on. This will allow a 
card with each form for the teacher. 

Triangle. Square. Oblong. 

Ehomb. Ehomboid. Circle. 

Semicircle. Crescent. Oval. 

Eing. 
For a class of thirty pupils, the triangle, oblong, 
rhomb, circle, and crescent may each be cut from the 
* red^ yelloio^ green^ and purple. 

The square, rhomboid, semicircle, and ring may each 
be cut from the orange^ hlue^ red., and green. 

Let each of these forms cut from the colored papers 
— the sizes of which should correspond to the forms in 



EXERCISES WITH COLOR AND FORM COMBINED. 167 

the box or those on the Chart — be neatly pasted in the 
centre of the pieces of pasteboard or thick paper. 

The lessons on form and color may be conducted 
with these cards somewhat as follows : 

Distribute the cards so that each child shall hold one. 
The teacher should select beforehand one card for each 
form. As the card containing the square is held before 
the class, all the pupils that have a card CQntaining the 
same shape may stand ujd. Each pupil standing may 
then be called upon to tell what shajDC is on its card, 
and also the color of it. In this instance the shape on 
each card of those pupils who stand up should be a 
square, but there will be four different colors represent- 
ed by these squares in a class of forty. 

Next the teacher may hold before the class another 
form, as the crescent^ and request all the pupils that 
have that shape on their cards to stand up. Then each 
pupil may tell what shape is on its card, and the color 
of it, as before. 

After each form has been thus called for, the teacher 
may request all the pupils that have a color like the 
one shown by the teacher to stand up. Then each pu- 
pil may be called upon to tell the name of the color, 
and the name of the/brm on its card. 

When sufficiently advanced in the lessons on form, 
the pupils may describe the form, thus : " The shape on 
ray card is a square ; it has four equal sides, and four 
square corners. Its color is — " 

" The shape on my card is a circle ; it has one evenly 
curved edge. Its color is — " 

" The shape on my card is a rhomboid ; it has two 
equal long sides, two equal short sides, and two sharp 
corners, and two blunt corners. Its color is — " 



9 

168 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

A variety of questions may be given, and the interest 
of the children kept wide awake when this exercise is 
properly conducted. 

In one of the largest public schools in New York City 
the teachers arranged these forms and colors on pieces 
of white glazed muslin, and fastened the muslin to 
sticks like little flags. These are passed by the pupils 
from one to the other, and the lessons conducted some- 
what like the manner described above. In this school 
the children use the flags for the form and color lessons 
in the classes that are just learning to read short sen- 
tences from the blackboard, as well as with pupils that 
are readins: in the First Reader. 



LESSONS ON STANDAED COLOES. .169 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

STANDAED COLORS. 

FIRST STEP.— RED, YELLOW, AND BLUE. 

We have been talking about various colors, and about 

objects in which these colors may be seen. You have 

learned that some colors are dark, also that some are 

light ; now we will try to learn which are the best colors. 

Red. — You will observe that some of the reds on the 
Chart appear to be more red than others. Now Fanny 
may point to the reddest red on the Chart, and if you 
think she points to the right color, you may say Right ; 
if you think she does not point to the reddest one, you 
may say Wrong. " Right." 

Jennie may now point to the color which she thinks 
is reddest. " Right." 

Let us see what the name of the color is to which 
Jennie pointed. It is carmine. This is correct; we 
will call a bright carmine the reddest of the reds, and 
take this for our standard red. 

If you will look at the Frontispiece of this book you 
will find a good carmine red. This color should be like 
the pure red of the rainbow. 

The pupils may now be called upon to select the 
standard red from the colors on the table. 

Yellow. — When you look at the yellows on this Chart, 
you can see that they do not all appear alike. Who 
will point to the yellowest yellow ? 

H 



lYO PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Henry may clo it. " Wrong." William may try it. 
" Right." James may now point to the yellowest col- 
or. "Kight." 

You may look at this color carefully; we will take 
it for our standard yellow. You can see this color on 
the Frontispiece of this book. 

The children may now be requested to select the 
standard yellow from the colors on the table. 

Blue. — On the Chart of Colors you will notice that 
some of the blues are light, and some are very blue. 
Now Cora may point to the bluest blue. *' Right." 

Lizzie may show us which she thinks is the bluest of 
the blues. "Right." 

The name of this blue is ultramarine. It is a rich 
pure blue, and we will choose it for the standard blue. 
This color resembles the bright blue of the rainbow. 

The children may now be requested to select the 
standard blue from the colors on the table. 

The pupils may also be requested to select the three 
standard colors, and place them in one group on the 
table. This may be called the first group of standard 
colors. 



SECOND STEP.— ORANGE, GREEN, AND PURPLE. 

You may tell me how many standard colors we have 
selected. "Three." 

What are their names ? " Red, yellow, blue." 

Who will point them out on the Chart of Colors ? 
Anna may do it. 

"Right; right; right." 

Well done ; now we will select more standard colors. 



LESSONS ON STANDARD COLORS. 171 

Orange. — When you look at the orange colors on the 
Chart, you observe that some of them do not have the 
same color as the orange. Carrie may point to a color 
which she thinks is like that of the orange. " Right." 

We will take the color of the ripe orange for our 
standard orange color. 

Green. — When you look at grass, or green leaves, and 
the colors on the Chart, you will notice that some greens 
are brighter than others. Let us choose the brightest 
color of green grass in early summer for our standard 
green. Who will point to a color which resembles it 
on the Chart ? Fanny may show us that color. • 

"Right." 

Let pupils be called upon to select the standard green 
from the colors on the table. 

Purple. — You may look at the colors on the Chart, 
and select the best purple. Jane may show us which 
purple she selected. "Right." 

Alice may show us which j)urple she selected. 
"Wrong; right." 

Now let us examine these colors, and see if Alice is 
correct. She pointed to the royal purple, which is a 
very dark, rich purple. This purple is too dark for the 
purple seen in the rainbow, so we will choose the light- 
er purple which Jane selected for our standard purple. 

The pupils may now be requested to select colors 
like the standard purple, after the teacher shows it on 
the Chart. 

They may also be requested to select the last three 
standard colors and place them in a group on the table. 
This may be called the second group of standard colors. 



172 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

IIow many standards of colors have we selected in 
all? 

" Six." 

What are their names ? 

"Ked, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple." 

"Which did we select first ? 

" The standard red." 

Which did we select at the first lesson ? 

" The red, yellow, and blue." 

You may call these the first colors, because they are 
the three standards which we selected at i\iQ first les- 
son. 

What was the color selected first at the second lesson ? 

" Orange." 

How many colors did we select for standards at the 
second lesson ? 

"Three." 

What are their names ? 

" Orange, green, and purple." 

These were the standard colors selected at the second 
lesson, so we will call them the seco7id colors. 

Which do we call the second colors ? 

" Orange, green, and purple." 

Which do we call the first colors ? 

" Red, yellow, and blue." 

THIRD STEP.— WHITE AND BLACK. 

White. — You may tell me what you call the lightest 
color that you ever saw. 
" White." 

What is the whitest object that you ever saw? 
"Snow." 



LESSONS ON STANDARD COLORS. 173 

Very good ; snow is the purest white that is known. 
This we call our standard white. 

Sometimes we call sunlight white, but it is a golden 
white. 

You may mention the names of objects that are 
white. 

Black. — You told me the name of the lightest color 
that you ever saw, now you may tell me the name of 
the darkest color that you know. 

" Black." 

What have you seen that is black ? 

" Horses, cats, dogs, birds, coal, cloth, silk, ribbon." 

These two colors, white and hlack.^ are the boundaries 
of all the other colors. I will try to explain what I 
mean by this on the blackboard. Here I will write the 
word white at one end of the blackboard, and I will 
write the word hlack at the other end. Next to the 
white I will write yellow^ the lightest of the standard 
colors, and next to that orange., and next to that red. 
Now I will write blue next to black, then purple next to 
blue, then green. 

You observe that all these colors come between white 
and black. Can you mention any color that is lighter 
than white ? Can you mention any color that is darker 
than black? Then these two show how far colors ex- 
tend each way. 

Now I will write the name of the lightest color at 
the top of the blackboard. What is it ? 
"White." 

I have written the word white; what shall I write 
next below it ? ' 

"Yellow." 



174 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

And next below that ? 

" Orange." 

And next below that ? 

"Red." 

And next below red ? 

" Green." 

And next below green? 

"Purple." 

And next below purple ? 

"Blue." 

And next below blue ? 

" Black." 

And next below black ? 

" There is no darker color." 

Yeiy good. Now you see that hlack is at the hot- 
torn^ and white is at the top of the column of colors. 
Thus you see that all colors belong between these two 
extremes — white and black. 



SHADES AND TINTS OF COLORS. 1V5 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

SHADES AND TINTS OF COLOKS. 

FIRST STEP.— SHADES. 

You have already learned that some colors are light 
and some are dark ; I am now going to tell you what 
we call those colors that are made dark by mixing some 
darker color, or a black, with them. 

Where the sun shines it is very light ; but if you go 
under a tree, or by the side of a house so that the sun 
can not shine upon you, you are in the — " Shade." 

Right. Now tell me whether the shade is as light 
as sunlight. 

Then a shade is where the light is not so bright. So 
when we mix a dark color with a light one, so as to 
make that light color darker than it was before, we say 
it is a shade of that color. 

If I take red and mix black with it, so as to make a 
dark red of it, then it may be called a shade of red. 

Suppose I should mix black with green, what would 
it produce ? 

" A shade of green." 

If I should mix black with blue, what would it pro- 
duce ? 

So if I should mix blue, which is a very dark color, 
with red, it would produce a crimson^ which is a shade 
of red. 

How may Ave produce shades of colors ? 

'* By mixing black or dark colors with light ones." 



llQ PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



SECOND STEP.— TINTS OF COLORS. 

In the last lesson we were talking about — What? 

" Shades of colors." 

Now we will talk about making colors lighter. If I 
take yellow and mix white with it, what effect will it 
have on the yellow ? 

*'Make it lighter." 

If I take red and mix white with it, what effect will 
it have on the red ? 

" Make it lighter." 

If I mix white with green, what will be produced ? 

" A light green." 

When we mix white with any color so as to make it 
appear very light, we call it a tint of the color. If white 
be mixed with blue so as to make it look very light, 
we call it a tint of blue. 

Suppose you should mix white with purple so as to 
make it very light, what would we call it ? 

" A tint of purple." 

!N'ow you may come to the Chart, one at a time, and 
point to a tint of some color, and tell what color it is a 
tint of 

You may select tints from the colors on the table. 

You may point to shades of colors on the Chart. 

Now you may select shades from the colors on the 
table. 



HUES OF COLOES. 177 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

HUES OF COLOES. 

Sometimes we find a color which aj^pears as if an- 
other color had been mixed with it. If you will look 
at vermilion on the Chart of Colors, you will see that 
it has more of a yellowish ajDpearance than the other 
reds; so we might say it is a yellowish hue of red. 

Hue. — When you can see that some other color has 
been mixed with the one you are looking at, so that it 
appears reddish, yellowish, bluish, or greenish, it may 
be called a hue. 

Now look on the Chart of Colors, and see if you can 
find a yellowish hue of green. Who will point it out ? 

Who can point out a hue of orange ? 

Who will show us a hue of brown ? 

Emma may select a hue of blue from the colors on 
the table. 

Carrie may select a hue of red. 
H2 



178 



PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

CLASSES OF COLOES. 



You have had several lessons on color ; now I wish 
to see who can tell me the names of the groups or kinds 
of colors that you have learned. As you mention their 
names, I will write them on the blackboard. 

Bed. Yellow. Blue. Orange. 

Green. Purple. White. Black. 

How many kinds or groups of color have you named? 

"Eight." 

I will write three of these names on another part of 
the blackboard, and leave room to write other words 



under each, thus : 
Bed. 



Yellow. 



Blue. 



Grouping Colors in Classes.— You 
the names of all the colors that you 
each group, commencing with red. 



may now tell me 
can remember for 



Bed. 


Yellow. 


Blue. 


Pink. 


Sulphur. 


Ultramarine. 


Rose. 


Saifron. 


Indigo. 


Crimson. 


Canary. 


Mazarine. 


Scarlet. 


Lemon. 


Prussian blue. 


Carmine. 


Straw. 


Cobalt blue. 


Cherry. 


Citrine. 


Turquois. 


Vermilion. 


Ochre. 


Azure. 


Magenta. 


Golden. 


Light blue. 


Garnet. 


Primrose. 


French blue. 



CLASSES OF COLOES. 179 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

Probably the first time this exercise is given the children will be 
able to mention only a few of the names presented above in each 
group of colors ; but by requesting the pupils to try to find more 
names for each of these classes, by inquiring of their parents, or older 
brothers and sisters, in two or three days they will be able to add 
many more to their first lists. The teacher should also lead the pu- 
pils to perceive how the colors in each class differ from each other in 
the same group. A reference to "Facts about Color" will aid in this 
work. 

A similar plan should be pursued in grouping the names of other 
colors in classes. And in each case give the children an opportunity 
to observe the colors and learn more names, and then teach them how 
the colors of the same group differ from each other. 

Teaching the pupils to distinguish the differences in colors of the 
same class should not be undertaken until they have advanced so far 
as to read in a Second Reader, and are familiar with all the lessons 
preceding these on "Classes of Colors." 

These distinctions of colors will require several lessons, each illus- 
trated with the colors described. 

Grouping Colors in Classes.— To-day we will take a 
new lesson in grouping the names of colors. You may- 
mention the names of all the colors that you can think 
of, while I write them on the blackboard. When you 
have given me the names of all that you can think of 
to-day for each group, we will leave the lesson, that you 
may learn the names of more colors to give me to-morrow. 



Orange. 


Green. 


Purple. 


Amber. 


Grass-green. 


Violet. 


Salmon. 


Emerald. 


Mauve. 


Buff. 


Pea-green. 


Lilac. 


Cream. 


Olive. 


Lavender. 


Oak. 


Tea-green. 


Amaranth. 



180 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



BROWNS AND GRAYS. 



In our lessons on grouping colors you have men- 
tioned the names of some that we could not place in 
either of the classes already given. I will try to teach 
you something about two other classes — hroicns and 
grays — so that you can group the other common names. 

Browns. — Brown is a reddish color, but it usually has 
some other hue. Brown colors are produced by mixing 
red, yellow, and black. All colors, then, that appear to 
be composed of these three — red, yellow, and black — 
you may group with the class called browns. 

Grays. — Gray is a color produced by mixing white 
and black. But this color is frequently modified by 
red, or blue, or yellow, so that the gray may have a 
reddish hue, or a bluish hue, or a yellowish hue. 

Now you may try to give me names of colors to 
group in these two classes, and I will write them on 
the blackboard. 

Broimis. Grays. • 

Dark brown. Light gray. 

Light brown. Dark gray. 

Chestnut. Steel-gray. 

Chocolate. L'on-gray. 

Auburn. French gray. 

Russet. Slate. 

Hazel. Pearl-gray. 

Snuff. 

Claret. 



PKIMARY AND SECOND AKY COLORS. 181 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

PEIMAKY AND SECOND AEY COLOES. 

FIRST STEP. — MIXING RED, YELLOW, AND BLUE. 

Who can tell me the names of the first group of 
standard colors which we selected ? 

Sidney may answer. " Eed, yellow, and blue." 

Very well. What did we call the first three stand- 
ard colors that we selected ? 

^' First colors.'''' 

I am now going to take these first colors and show 
you something more wonderful ' than any thing you 
have seen in colors. 

Mixing Red and Yellow. — I have here two colored 
crayons ; what is the color of this ? " Eed." 

What is the color of this ? " Yellow." 

I have also some red and yellow paints. I will place 
some of the red paint on this white paper, and then mix 
yellow paint with it. Now look at it, and tell me what 
the color is like. 

" It is like the color of an orange." 

Then what may we call it ? 

" An orange color." 

What two colors did I mix together to produce the 
orange color? 

" Eed and yellow." 

I will now make a broad^red mark on the blackboard 
with the red crayon, and then make a broad yellow mark 
across one end of it, as you may see in Figure 1 of the 



182 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Frontispiece. When I rub these colors so as to mix 
them, what color do they form ? 

" An orange." 

When I wish to make an orange color, what two 
colors must I mix together ? 

" A red and a yellow." 

I hold a red color in my hand; what other color 
must I take that the two colors held will represent 
those that will produce an orange? 

"A yellow." 

What color must I mix with yellow to produce 
orange ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

It would be well, when the size of the class will permit it, to call 
upon individual pupils to select colors to represent those that will pro- 
duce orange ; also to request pupils to take the colored crayons and 
represent the mixing of these colors on the blackboard. What chil- 
dren learn to do they remember longer than what they learn to repeat. 

The same practice should be introduced in teaching each of the sec- 
ondary colors — orange, green, and purple. 

Mixing Yellow and Blue. — I now have yellow and blue 
paints, and yellow and blue crayons, and I will show you 
how we can produce another beautiful color by mixing 
two of these. First I will place a little yellow paint on 
this paper, and then mix a little blue with it. Please 
to observe carefully what I do, so that you can tell me 
when I am through. What color have I produced ? 

" A green." 

What colors did I mix together ? 

"Yellow and blue." 

I will now make a broad yellow mark on the black- 



PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 183 

board with this crayon, and a broad bhie mark across 
the end of it, like Fig. 2 on the Plate of Colors, and 
then rub the yellow and blue colors together. What 
color does it produce ? 

" A green." 

Which of the colors that I mixed together does the 
green look like ? 

" It does not look like either." 

What two colors will produce a green ? 

I hold a yellow color in my hand ; what other color 
must I take that the two may represent those which 
will produce green ? 

What color mixed with blue will produce green ? 

I hold a green ; who will select the two colors that 
would produce it ? 

Let pupils come and select the two colors which 
produce green, and hold them in one hand, and select a 
green to hold in the other hand. 

Now let me see if you have them right. John has 
red in his hand with the yellow. Is that right ? 
"No." 

What color would he have, should he mix these? 
"Orange." Try it again, John. 

Mary, let me see yours. You have yellow and green 
in one hand, and blue in the other. Ella, you may show 
her how to hold them. Now all have the right colors, 
I believe. 

What two colors have you in your left hand? "Blue 
and yellow." 

What color have you in your right hand ? " Green." 

If you mix blue and yellow paint, what color will you 
have ? " Green." 



184 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Mixing Red and Blue. — Now I have red and blue 
paints, and red and blue crayons. By mixing these 
we may produce another color. I will show it to you. 
Here is a little red paint on this white jiaper, and I will 
mix a little hlue paint with it. Do you know any name 
for this beautiful color ? 

" It is a purple." 

Very good. What two colors did I mix to joroduce 
the purple ? 

"A red and a blue." 

Kow I will see if we can make a purple with the col- 
ored crayons on the blackboard. What is the color of 
this mark ? 

"Ked." 

I will now draw a broad blue mark across it, as in 
Fig. 3 on the Plate of Colors, and rub the red and blue 
colors together. What have I produced ? 

" A dark reddish color, like a purple." 

What colors must I take to make a purple ? 

"Red and blue." 

What color must I mix with blue to make a purple ? 

What color must you mix with red to make a purple ? 

I promised to show you something wonderful with the 
first colors. Who can tell me what I did with them ? 

" You mixed them together, and made other colors 
with them." 

Very good. When you saw these colors made by 
mixing the first colors, which one of the colors that I 
produced seemed most wonderful to you ? 

"The green." 

I sujDpose this was because the green is so unlike both 
of the colors that we mix to produce it. 



PKIMAKY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 185 



SECOND STEP.— PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 

Let us now talk about the colors that we mixed to 
make other colors. Who can tell me what colors we 
mixed together? 

" Red and yellow ; yellow and blue ; blue and red." 

How many colors did we produce by mixing the red, 
yellow, and blue? 

" Three colors." 

What are their names ? 

" Orange, green, and purple." 

How many and which ^rs^ colors did we use to make 
the orange ? 

"Two; the red and the yellow." 

How many and ^Ylach first colors did we use to make 
the green ? 

" Two ; the yellow and the blue." 

How many and which ^rs^ colors did we use to make 
the purple ? 

" Two ; the red and the blue." 

Primary Colors. — What name did avo give to the 
standard red, yellow, and blue ? 

" First colors." 

Now I will give you a new name for this group of 
colors ; Ave Avill call them primary colors. Primary 
means first, or simple. These first colors are simple 
colors ; they can not be produced by mixing any other 
colors together. 

What may we call these first colors ? 

"Primary colors." 

Which colors do avc call simple or primary ? 



186 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

" The red, yellow, and blue." 

Why do we say these are simple colors ? 

"Because they can not be made by mixing other 
colors." 

And we might also say, because each of these simple 
colors does not contain any other color. They are pure 
colors. 

Secondary Colors. — Who can tell me what we called 
the second group of standard colors that we selected ? 

" Second colors." 

Very good. Can you tell their names ? 

" Orange, green, and purple." 

Right. What were the names of the colors that we 
produced by mixing the primary colors f 

" Orange, green, and purple." 

Are these names like those of either group of the 
standard colors ? 

" Yes ; they are like the group of second colors." 

I will give you a new name for the three colors that 
may be produced by mixing the ^^rzmary colors ; ^\e 
did call them second colors^ but now we will call them 
secondary colors. This means the second colors, or those 
colors that r)iay he produced by mixing together two pri- 
mary colors. 

Which are the secondary colors ? 

" Orange, green, and purple." 

What two primary colors will produce the secondary 
orange ? 

'' Red and yellow." 

What primary colors will produce the secondary 
green ? 

"Yellow and blue." 



PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 18*7 

What primary colors will produce the secondary- 
purple ? 

" Red and blue." 

I will write the word orange on the blackboard, and 
then one of the class may take the two crayons that 
will produce an orange, and make a mark with each 
color under this word. 

What are the colors of these marks ? 

" Ked and yellow." 

ISTow I Avill write the word green., and one of you may 
make marks under it to show what two colors will pro- 
duce a green. 

What colors do you see in these marks ? 

" Yellow and blue." 

Now another pupil may make marks under the word 
purple., to show what colors will produce it. 

What marks have been made under purple ? 

" Red and blue marks." 

How many primary colors are there ? 

How many secondary colors did we make with the 
primary ones ? 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS FOR BOYS ON 

COLOKS OF ANIMALS, 

First Lesson. — I suppose you have noticed that horses 
and cattle diifer very much in color. Who can tell me 
the names of some of the colors of these animals ? 

*' Bay ; black ; gray ; white ; sorrel ; brown." 

Which of the colors on the Chart does the hay most 
resemble ? 

Which color does the sorrel resemble ? 

I will write descriptions of these two colors on the 
blackboard, and to-morrow you may tell me how many 
bay horses and how many sorrel horses you have seen. 

A hay horse has a reddish-hrown hody, a7id hlack legs^ 
mane^ and tail. 

A sorrel horse has a yelloioish-hrown hody and legs, 
and usually loith a mane and tail of the same color. 

Who can describe a bay horse ? John may tell us 
how we may know when to call a horse hay. 

" A bay horse has a reddish-brown body, and black 
legs, mane, and tail." 

Who will describe a sorrel horse ? Abram may tell 
us how we can know a sorrel horse from a bay one. 

"A sorrel horse has a yellowish-brown body and legs, 
and a yellowish-brown mane and tail." 

Very good. To-morrow you may tell me how many 
horses you have seen of each color. 

Second Lesson. — Yesterday Ave were talking about 
the color of horses, and you were to notice the color of 



COLOKS OF ANIMALS. 



189 



the horses that you saw, and tell me how many you 
have seen of each color. What were the names of the 
colors that you were to notice and count ? " Bay and 

sorrel." 

I will now write these words on the blackboard, thus: 

Bay horses. Sorrel horses. 

ISTow as each of you in order, commencing with the 
first boy, tell me how many bay horses you have seen, 
I will place the number under the words "bay horses." 
If any of you have not seen a bay horse, I will make a 
naught under these words. 

The teacher may now proceed to place figures under 
the words "bay horses," as each boy gives the number 
that he has seen, thus : 

When the teacher has asked each boy in the 
May ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ horses he saw, the same 

plan may be pursued to ascertain how many 
sorted horses each saw. 

3 Suitable remarks should be made to stimu- 

late those who saw no horses to use their eyes 
5 better next time, and to commend those who 

4 appear to take notice of what they see. 

1 The teacher may call upon individual pupils 
^ to describe one of the bay horses that he saw ; 
^ also to tell where he saw it. The same may be 

done with those who saw sorrel horses. 

To prepare for another lesson, the teacher may in- 
quire whether any of the pupils saw horses of any other 
color. Those who did may describe the color, or tell 
the name of it. The pupils may mention the names 
gray horse, broion horse, chestnut horse. 

The teacher may Avrite a description of each of these 



190 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

colors on the blackboard, and request the boys to learn 
them. 

A brown horse has a dark broion body, and black legs, 
ma7ie, and tail, 

A chestnut horse has a dark brown body and legs, and 
a broion mane and tail. 

A gray horse has brown hairs mixed with tchite ones, 
but icith many more lohite than brown hairs. 

The teacher may request the boys to notice horses, 
and tell how many each saw, as before, for a thu'd ex- 
ercise. 

A similar plan may be pursued with all the colors 
common among animals. 



NUMBER. 

When a child has learned to distmguish objects by 
Form and Color ^ it soon perceives two or more objects 
alike, and thus gains its first idea of more than one. 
This is its starting-point in JSFumher. It obtains this 
first notion of number at an early age, and, until it 
learns to count, its ideas ajopear to be limited to one 
and 7nore, These ideas are enlarged by means of count- 
ing objects, and thus it takes its first step in a knowl- 
edge of number. Hence with counting objects should 
commence the child's training in the elements of arith- 
metic. 

Veritable ideas of number, like those of Form and 
Color^ belong to the facts that are chiefly acquired 
through the sense of sight. Early instruction in this 
subject must depend for success upon the actual pres- 
entation of objects. No description of numbers, or of 
arithmetic, nor the memorizing and repetition of rules, 
will ever teach a child true ideas of number, and lay a 
proper foundation for a practical knowledge of arith- 
metic. 

A common error in the teaching of arithmetic con- 
sists in the abstract manner in which it is usually pre- 
sented ; and, owing to this, many pupils seldom think 
of finding illustrations of what they are taught in the 
daily transactions of life, or of making practical appli- 
cations of what they learn in school to their experiences 
out of school. 

How shall the lessons in number and arithmetic be- 



192 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

come living representations of real transactions instead 
of mere abstract knowledge ? How may these lessons 
in school be associated with the real affairs of life out- 
side of the schoolroom? These are most important 
questions for the teacher to answer; and upon the 
manner in which these are answered in the practices 
of instruction will chiefly depend success in teaching. 

To answer these questions properly, the teacher must 
go back of the usual course of instruction in arithmetic, 
and ascertain what is the true starting-point, and how 
children obtain their first ideas of number, and learn 
that they do not at first separate number from the 
things numbered ; that, notwithstanding they may be 
able to count five fingers or eight apples, they can not 
reason about the numbers five and eight ; that it is with 
concrete nuinbers that instruction should commence. 

The following lessons are intended to suggest appro- 
priate methods for an objective course of training, as a 
preparation for commencing the study of the science of 
number at the point where the subject is usually taken 
up in text-books on arithmetic. 

Some teachers may say, " I have no time for this ob- 
jective teaching." Then some of the other subjects, 
usually known as "higher branches," had better be 
omitted, for it is of vastly greater importance that the 
first steps be properly taken than that attempts be 
made to teach the abstract studies in which many pu- 
pils spend so much time unprofitably. 

You can teach arithmetic thoroughly without this ob- 
jective training? Ah, yes ; I perceive that your stand- 
ard oiysi\\^\j constitutes a knowledge of arithmetic is to 
be able to repeat what the text-books say about it. 
, Would you say that a farmer, a carpenter, a hatter, a 



NUMBEK. 193 

tailor, an engraver, or a watchmaker understands his 
business thoroughly because he can repeat what the 
books say about his occupation or trade, regardless of 
his ability and skill in performing the actual work per- 
taining to it ? 

What is your standard of a true knowledge of arith- 
metic ? 

What do you try to teach your pupils concerning it ? 

Why do you teach them this subject ? 

JIoio do you commence your instruction in numbers ? 
-A thoughtful consideration of these questions may 
lead to more natural methods of teaching arithmetic. 

I 



194 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE 

FI^ST IDEAS OF NUMBER 

Before commencing the first lessons in Nkimher, the 
teacher should procure a variety of objects to be count- 
ed, as pencils, cents, buttons, beans, pebbles, nuts, mar- 
bles, books, apples ; also a numeral frame. 

FIRST STEP.— COUNTING. 

First Group of Numbers, 1 to 9. — The teacher may- 
place several objects of the same kind, as cents, but- 
tons, pencils, or pebbles, on a table before a class, and 
arrange them in rows, thus : 



The teacher may then commence counting, saying 
07ie^ and at the same time pointing at the first object. 
Then beginning with the second row, pointing at the 
two in order, saying one, tico. Next pointing at the 
row of three, saying owe, tioo^ three. 

Now the teacher may commence as before, and pro- 
ceed to point at each object in the order of their grou]3S, 
and let the children count with the teacher, thus : " Onef^ 
"one, two ;" " one, two, three." 



FIEST IDEAS OF NUMBER. 195 

When the children can count objects as far as three, 
let marks be made on the blackboard in similar groups, 
thus, 

I 

I I 

I I I 

and the children requested to count them in the same 
manner as they counted the objects on the table. 

When the children have learned to count three readi- 
ly, the teacher may place under the other objects a row 
with/bwr, and, commencing at the first, let the children 
count, as before, " One ;" *' one, two;" "one, two, three;" 
*' one, two, three, four." 

When the children can readily count four objects, 
and four marks on the blackboard, and four balls on 
the numeral frame, the teacher may add a group of five, 
so that the several groups or rows will appear thus : 



The teacher should now commence counting at one 



196 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

again, as before, and let the children count each line, 
thus : " One ;" " one, two ;" " one, two, three ;" " one, 
two, three, four;" "one, two, three, four, five." 

When the children can readily count five objects on 
the table, five balls on the numeral frame, and five 
marks on the blackboard, the teacher may add a row 
with six objects, and then commence at one, and proceed 
as before. 

The same plan may be pursued until the children are 
able to count groups of objects from one to nine readily 
and correctly. Let the teacher ask the children. How 
many cents* in the first row ? " One cent." 

How many pencils in the second row ? " Two pen- 
cils." 

How many buttons in the third row ? " Three but- 
tons." 

How many cents in the fourth row ? 

How many buttons in the fifth row? "Five buttons." 

Thus the children niixj be led to read the objects or 
marks in groups, as " Three cents ;" " four pencils ;" 
" five buttons," etc. 

At this stage it would be profitable to call upon in- 
dividual pupils to count a given number of balls on the 
numeral frame, or objects on the table, or marks on the 
blackboard. Let one stand and count five balls, then 
sit down; another stand and count eight marks; an- 
other, four pencils; another, nine balls; another, seven 
marks ; another, three balls, etc. 

The children may be requested to count and hold 
up three fingers ; t\\Qi\ five fingers ; then eight fingers, 
etc. 

* The teacher will, of course, ask the question so as to correspond 
with the objects used for counting. 



FIRST IDEAS OP NUMBER. 197 

Ask the children, How many eyes have you ? How 
many ears ? How many feet ? How many toes on 
one foot ? How many hands ? How many fingers and 
thumbs ? How many wheels has a cart ? How many 
has a wagon? How many wheels has a car? Thus 
lead iDupils to count a great variety of objects. 

Value of Numbers. — To lead the pupils to observe the 
value of numbers, ask them, What number is greater 
than eight ? What number is less than seven ? 

Now you may tell me a number that is less than 
nine ; one that is less than four ; one less than eight ; 
one less than six, etc. 

Tell me all the numbers you know that are less than 
four ; all that you know that are less than six ; all less 
than three ; all less than eight, etc. 

Now tell me the numbers that you know which are 
more than seven ; those which are more than five ; those 
more than six ; those more than four, etc. 

Which is the largest number, three, six, or five ? 
Which the largest, eight, four, or seven ? six, nine, or 
five ? two, five, or seven ? 

Which is the .smallest number, four, one, or three ? 
two, six, or five ? eight, seven, or nine ? six, four, or 
three ? 

Which is the smallest number that you know? which 
the largest ? 

Here are four cents in this pile, and six cents in this ; 
which pile contains the greater number of cents ? I 
have placed eight beans in one place, and eight cents in 
another ; which contains the larger number ? 

The teacher Tvdll readily perceive how these exercises 
can be extended in an almost unlimited variety, and she 



198 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

will vary them according to the attainments and prog- 
ress of her pupils. 



SECOND STEP.— COUNTING. 

Second Group of Numbers, 10 to 19. — When the pupils 
have learned to count objects readily to ?^^V^e,the teacher 
may proceed to teach them the numbers in order from 
nme to nineteen. 

Plans similar to those for teaching the children to 
count from one to nine may be used, but the numeral 
frame and marks on the blackboard will be found more 
convenient for large classes than objects on the table. 

When the pupils have learned to count objects, balls, 
marks, etc., readily as far as nineteen^ a new mode of 
grouping may be introduced for numbers from twenty 
to ninety-nine inclusive, as in the next step. 



THIRD STEP.— COUNTING. 

Third Group of Numbers. — The teacher may now show 
the. children how to count from twenty to twenty-nine 
by the balls on the numeral frame, by marks on the 
blackboard, and by other objects. 

When they can readily count these numbers,'teach 
them to count from thirty to thirty-nhie in the same 
way ; also to compare the numbers from thirty to thir- 
ty-nine with those from twenty to twenty-nine, and thus 
teach a new mode of grouping, as follows, viz. : 

Twenty^ twenty-o?ie, twenty-^^oo, twenty-^/iree, twen- 
^J-fouT^ twQnij-Jive^ etc. 

Thirty, thirty-o?ze, Xhivij-two-^ thirty-^Aree, thirty;/c>wr, 
thivtj-five, etc. 



FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBER. 199 

In tlie same way teach counting from forty to forty- 
nine ; from fifty to fifty-nine ; and so on through ninety 
to ninety-nine. 

Order of Numbers. — Care should be taken to teach the 
order of numbers^ so that the children can tell what 
number comes before, and what after, any given num- 
ber. To accomplish this thoroughly, after the pupils 
have learned to count in order, ask them. What comes 
after six? What comes after twelve? What comes 
before seventeen ? What comes after forty - eight ? 
What comes after seventy-nine ? What comes before 
thirty? etc. 



200 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE 

FIEST IDEAS OF FIGUEES. 

When the children have learned to count readily 
from one to nine inclusive, they may be taught the fig- 
%ires from to 9 as symbols of numbers, or signs of the 
number of things counted. While the pupils are learn- 
ing this group of figures, they may be taught counting 
from te7i to nineteen^ and review from one to nineteen. 



EIRST STEP.— FIGURES AS SYMBOLS. 

First Group of Figures, to 9. — The teacher may take 
a numeral frame, and, before moving the balls, ask, How 
many balls have I moved ? How many fingers do I 
hold up ? How many marks have I made on the black- 
board ? Continue similar questions until the pupils an- 
swer readily, " No balls ;" " No fingers ;" " No marks." 

The teacher may then say, I will now make a figure 
on the blackboard that stands for nothing. It shows 
that there are no marks on the board — that you have 
not counted any balls or fingers. The name of this fig- 
ure is naught. What is its name ? " Naught." 

How many balls does it stand for ? " Not any balls." 

How many fingers does it stand for? "Not any 
fingers." 

Moving one ball on the numeral frame, the teacher 
says. How many balls have I moved ? " One ball." 

How many fingers do I hold up ? " One finger." 

IToxi may now hold up one finger. I will make a 



FIEST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 201 

mark on the blackboard. How many marks did I make ? 
" One mark." How many books am I holding up ^ 
"One book." ^' 

I will make a figure on the blackboard that stands 
for one. It shows that ojie ball has been moved, one 
finger held up, one mark made on the blackboard; it 
stands for 07ie of any thing. It is called fgure me. 
What do we call this figure ? "Figure one." 
How many balls does it stand for ? " One ball." 
How many apples would it stand for ? " One apple." 
I^ow look at the numeral frame again, and tell me 
how many balls I move ? " Two balls." 

How many fingers do I hold up ? " Two fingers." 
You may hold up two fingers. I will make more 
marks on the blackboard. How many marks did I 
make this time ? " Two marks." 
How many books am 1 holding up ? *' Two books." 
I will now make a figure that stands for ttvo. It 
shows tioo balls moved ; tzvo fingers held up ; two marks ; 
tivo books, etc. This is called /^i^re two. What is this 
called ? " Figure two." 

How many balls does it stand for ? " Two balls." 
How many boys would it stand for ? *' Two boys." 
Now look at these figures; we have one that stands 
for no balls, one that stands for one ball, and one that 
stands for two balls. Who will come and point to the 
figure that stands for no balls? Lucy may come and 
point to it. Maggie may point to the figure that stands 
for 07ie ball. Ellen may point to the figure that stands 
for two balls. 

To-morrow we will have another lesson with figures. 

Who can tell me the names of the figures which you 
I2 



202 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

learned yesterday ? " Naught ;" " Figure one ;" " Fig- 
ure two." 

Very good; I will write them on the blackboard as 

before : 

12 

N'ow you may count balls on the numeral frame as I 
move them. " One." 

Now count the balls that I move on the next wire. 

" One, two." 

'Now count the balls as I move them on the next 
wire. " One, two, three." 

How many balls did I move on the last wire ? " Three 
balls." 

How many fingers am I holding up ? " Three fin- 
gers." 

You may hold up three fingers. I will make marks 
on the blackboard ; how many marks have I made ? 
"Three marks." 

I will make a figure three to stand for three balls, three 
marks, etc. What is this figure called? "Figure three." 

How many balls does it stand for? " Three balls." 

Now look at these figures, and read them as I point. 
" Figure naught ; figure one ; figure two ; figure three." 

See, this is the way you count — 07ie, ttoo, three. Each 
figure tells how many you have counted. 

You may look at the balls again. How many balls 
did I move on the first wire ? " One ball." 

How many balls were moved on the second wire? 
"Two balls." 

How many balls did I move on the third wire? 
"Three balls." 

Now count — "One, two, three, four." How many 
balls did I move on the last wire ? " Four balls." 



FIEST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 203 

See how many marks I make. " Four marks." 

I will now make the figure four. How many balls 

does this stand for ? " Four balls." 

Now count the balls on the next wire as I move them. 

" One, two, three, four, five." 

How many balls did I move ? " Five balls." 

I will now make IhQ figure five. How many fingers 

does this figure stand for ? " Five fingers." 

Now look at the blackboard, and see how I have 

made the marks and figures: 

I il III MM Mill 

12 3 4 5 

You may read these marks, and the figures that stand 
for them, as I point. 

" No mark, figure naught ; one mark, figure one ; two 
marks, figure two; three marks, figure three; four marks, 
figure four; five marks, figure five." 

I will make these figures that you have learned, and 
you may tell me their names. "Figure one." "Figure 
three." "Figure five." "Figure two." "Figure four." 

Now, as I point to these figures, you may hold up as 
many fingers as each one stands for. 

At subsequent lessons, let these exercises of counting 
and representing the number counted by figures be con- 
tinued as before, until all the figures from to 9 have 
become so thoroughly learned that the pupils can call 
each by name, tell how many it represents, and can 
readily point out each one in any order. 

To give individual drill, call upon pupils to take the 
numeral frame, and move and count as many balls as a 



204 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

given figure represents, thus ; Point at the figure 5, and 
let a pupil hold the numeral frame, and, moving the 
balls, count " One, two, three, four, five." Proceed in 
the same manner with all the figures, thus giving a 
variety of exercises for learning the value of figures. 

Care should be taken to train the pupils thoroughly 
with the figures from to 9 before presenting any larger 
number. ' Time properly spent in this step will save 
double the time in subsequent steps. 



SECOND STEP.— FIGURES AS SYMBOLS. 

Second Group of Figures, 10 to 19. — Having become 
familiar with counting to twenty^ and with figures to 
nine^ the pupils are prepared to learn the second group 
of figures from 10 to 19. 

Commence as in the first group, and let the pupils 
count " One, two, three, four, fi'i^e halls''' on one wire, 
and six halls on the next wire, and seven halls on the 
next, eight halls on the next, 7ii7ie halls on the next. 

Beginning with the new group, the pupils count "One, 
two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ^e/i halls on the 
wire next below the one with nine halls. The teacher 
represents this number on the blackboard thus: 10. 
Then eleveii halls are counted in the same manner, and 
this number represented by figures, as before. Then 
twelve halls are counted, the figures representing them 
written, and so on to nineteen. During these exercises 
several other objects are counted also, and the figures 
representing each number from 10 to 19 are given as 
symbols of the number counted. 

Now the teacher may arrange the figures on the 
blackboard in the following order, viz. : 



FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 205 






1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


1 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 



The attention of the pupils may now be called to the 
formation of the characters which represent numbers 
greater than nine. The pupils may be asked to tell the 
greatest number that can be represented by one figure ; 
also what figures are used to represent ten, eleven, twelve, 
thirteen, etc. Thus lead them to observe that, to form 
the figures which represent the numbers from 10 to 19 
inclusive, the figure 1 is written before each of the fig- 
ures that stand for the numbers from to 9. 

Subsequently the pupils may be requested to read 
these figures as follows, viz. : " One ten and naught, 
ten; one ten and one, eleven; one ten and two, twelve; 
one ten and three, thirteen; one ten and ioxxv, fourteen; 
one ten and fiwe, fifteen^'' etc. 

The pupils should also be trained to read these num- 
bers at sight, when pointed at in any order, after they 
have become familiar with them in the order of counting. 

How can I write the figures for ten f " Make a fig- 
ure one, and a naught on the right-hand side." 

How shall I write eleven ? " Make a figure one, and 
another figure one on the right-hand side of it." 

How can I write twelve ? 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

A Caution. — During these elementaiy lessons on number ondi fig- 
ures, do not attempt to explain the local value of figiu*es, nor to teach 
the pupils to say units, tens, etc. This work belongs to a later period 
of development, and to attempt to do it at this stage would only result 
in a waste of time and an injury to the progress of the pupils. Do 
not attempt to teach more than one difficulty at a time. 



206 PEIMAP.Y OBJECT LES60NS. 

All of these figures in both the first and second groups should be 
taught as signs of the number of balls or other objects counted. This 
ought to be so thoroughly done that 15 would represent to the child a 
whole number, or group of objects', just as completely as 5 does. 

During the time of learning the second group of figures, the chil- 
dren should be taught counting to fifty. 



THIRD STEP.— FIGURES AS SYMBOLS. 

Third Group of Figures, 20 to 29. — When the pujDils 
have become familiar with figures from to 19 inclu- 
sive, as presented in the preceding pages, they are pre- 
pared to be taught figures representing numbers from 
twenty to twenty-nine. 

The teacher may now proceed to require the pupils 
to count balls or other objects to twenty, and then 
Avrite the figures rejDresenting this number on the black- 
board, as in the second group. 

When the pupils have counted and the teacher writ- 
ten the figures to represent all the numbers from 20 to 
29, let the figures be arranged on the blackboard in the 
following order, viz. : 



10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 

The attention of the pupils should be called to the 
figures in each line, and led to observe that while the 
second line is formed by writing the figure 1 before each 
figure in the first line, that the third line is formed by 
writing: the fissure 2 before each fio-ure in the first line. 

The pupils may now be shown two groups of ten 
balls each on the numeral frame, also two groups of 



FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 207 

marks on the blackboard with ten in each, and led to 
see that two groups of ten each make twenty balls or 
twenty marks. Three groups of ten may in a like man- 
ner be shown to make thirty. Let the pupils read the 
groups thus : " One ten, or ten balls ;" " Two tens, or 
twenty balls ;" " Three tens, or thirty balls." 

Now point to the figure 10, and read it: "One ten, 
or ten ones ;" to 20, and read, " Two tens, or twenty ;" 
then to 30, and read, " Three tens, or thirty." 

Ask the children. How many tens in ten ones ? " One 
ten." 

How many tens in twenty ? " Two tens." 

How many tens in thirty ? 

The children may be requested to read the figures in 
the second line as follows, viz. : " Two tens and naught 
are twenty; two tens and one are twenty-one; two 
tens and two are twenty-two ; two tens and three are 
twenty-three ; two tens and four are twenty-four," etc. 

These figures should subsequently be written out of 
the order of counting, and the pupils trained to read 
each at sight ; also to take the numeral frame, and count 
as many as any given figure stands for. 

Group of Figures from 30 to 39.— The figures in this 
group should be taught and written in a manner simi- 
lar to those from 20 to 29. When this has been done, 
the last two lines may be compared in a new way, as a 
means of teaching the succeeding groups of figures to 
99 more readily, thus: 

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 

The teacher may now call attention to the resem- 



208 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

blance between these two lines of figures by pointing, 
and reading with emphasis on the units, thus : Twenty, 
twenty-one, twentj-two, twentj-three, twentj-four, etc. ; 
thirty, thirtj-oiie, thirty-two, ihirty-thi^ee, thirty -four, 
thirty;/ive, etc. Then adding, You see these figures 
have the same order in each line. Now we can write 
the figures from 40 to 49 in the same order, and 50 to 
59 also. 

At this point the teacher might be able to proceed 
with the figures without counting objects through all 
the groups to 99, and the pupils taught to read them 
by comparing the groups as in 20, 21, 22, etc., and 30, 
31, 32, etc. 

By this time the pupils will be prepared to learn all 
the figures from 40 to 99 in about half the time required 
for teaching them thoroughly from to 39. But fre- 
quent reviews should be had to keep the children fa- 
miliar with all the figures previously learned while 
teaching each new group. 

By comparing the group from 20 to 29 with the one 
from 30 to 39 carefully, the pupils will learn how to 
read all subsequent groups more readily. 

When the pupils can readily read the figures to 99, 
they may be subsequently drilled in counting as many 
objects as each figure represents. 

Let the figures from to 99 be placed on the black- 
board and carefully reviewed in the following order, 
viz. : 






1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


V 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 



FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 209 



40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


51 


52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


57 


58 


59 


60 


61 


62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


68 


69 


10 


71 


12 


13 


U 


75 


76 


77 


78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


83 


84 


85 


86 


87 


88 


89 


90 


91 


92 


93 


94 


95 


96 


97 


98 


99 



Let the pupils read these figures in order, "Naught, 
one, two, three," etc., through to "ninety-nine." 

Next let them read the tens, thus : " One ten, two tens, 
thi^ee tens, four tens," etc., to " m7ie tens." 

Then they may read the tens as "One ten, or ten ones; 
two tens, or twenty; three tens, or thirty," etc., to " nine 
tens, or ninety." 

The pupils may also read each line of tens as follows : 
"One ten and naught, ten ; one ten and one, eleven ; one 
ten and two, twelve ; one ten and three, thirteen ; one 
ten and four, fourteen," etc. 

" Two tens and naught, twenty ; two tens and one, 
twenty-one ; two tens and two, tw^enty-two," etc. 

" Three tens and naught, thirty ; three tens and one, 
thirty-one ; three tens and two, thirty-two," etc. 

Proceed in the same manner through "Nine tens and 
nine are ninety-nine." 

Subsequently the pupils may be asked to tell what 
figures must be used, and how, to represent each num- 
ber, as. How can I represent seventy-five ? " Make a 
seven, and a five on the right-hand side of it." 



210 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



FOURTH STEP.— FIGURES. 

The Group of Hundreds. — Having carefully taught the 
children figures, as symbols of numbers counted, through 
ninety-nine, the pupils are ready to learn to read three 
figures, or hundreds. The teacher may ask, What is the 
largest number that may be represented by one figure? 
"Nine." 

What is the largest number that can be represented 
by two figures ? " Ninety-nine." 

I will now show you how we write a number that is 
one greater than ninety-nine — one hundred — thus : 100, 
with a figure one, and two naughts on the right-hand 
side of it. 

The teacher may then proceed to place the tens from 
10 to 90 on the blackboard, and to write the hundreds 
from 100 to 900 in another column, by the side of the 
tens, thus : 

Now let the pupils read first the tens col- 
umn, then the hundreds column, thus : " One 
ten, two tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, 
six tens, seven tens, eight tens, nine tens;" 
"one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, 
four hundred, five hundred, six hundred, sev- 
en hundred, eight hundred, nine hundred." 

Lead the pupils to notice that it takes two 
figures to write each of the tens, and three 
figures to write each of the hundreds. 

The class may next be shown, from the blackboard, 
the figures representing numbers from 100 to 199 in 
one group, and from 200 to 299 in another group, and 
so on, thus • 



10 


100 


20 


200 


30 


300 


40 


400 


50 


500 


60 


600 


VO 


'700 


80 


800 


90 


900 



FIRST IDEAS OP FIGUEES. 211 

100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 

110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 

120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 

130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 
and so on to 199. 

200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 

210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 

220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 

230 231 232, and so on to 299. 

300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 

310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 

320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 
etc. 

When the children have become familiar with the 
fignres of one group in the order of counting, they 
should be taught the same figures out of order. The 
same plan may be pursued for each group. 

Children may be taught figures by means of count- 
ing, as described in the preceding lessons, so as to read 
any number readily, as a whole, from one through hun- 
dreds. To attempt, during this stage, to teach the pu- 
pils to analyze these numbers, and tell how they are 
composed of units, or to try to teach them the units, 
tens, and hundreds, would be little better than a w^aste 
of time. They might be taught to repeat words in any 
order, but they are not prepared to comprehend what 
is meant by " figures increase in a tenfold ratio from 
right to left." Remember that the first steps are teach- 
ing figures as symbols of the number of objects counted, 
as signs for lohole numbers or groups. 



212 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS FOR TRAINING IN 
ADDING. 

FIRST STEP.— ADDING OBJECTS. 

Adding should be commenced with objects, as balls on 
the numeral frame, pebbles, beans, pencils, etc. Marks 
on the blackboard may be used after the children have 
become familiar with adding objects. Adding balls on 
the numeral frame should not be confounded with count- 
ing balls ; the two processes differ, although the ability 
to count must be acquired before adding can be taught ; 
it also aids in teaching adding. 

First Exercises. — Commencing with the numeral 
frame, the teacher might proceed as follows, viz. : First 
moving one ball at a time, require the pupils to say, 
" One ball and one ball make two balls ; two balls and 
one ball make three balls ; three balls and one ball make 
four balls," etc. When the children can readily add 
thus as far as twenty, using balls, pencils, or other ob- 
jects, let them be taught to add two balls, thus : " Two 
balls and two balls make four balls ; four balls and two 
balls make six balls ; six balls and two balls make eight 
balls ;" and so on to ten balls and two balls. 

At this stage much practice should be given the pu- 
pils in adding various kinds of objects, one and two at 
a time, as already described, until they can readily add 
one to any number below twenty, and two to any num- 
ber below ten. 



ADDING. 213 

Second Exercises. — When the pupils have been thor- 
oughly tramed in the first series of exercises for adding, 
the teacher may proceed to teach them as before, to 
add one to numbers from twenty to fifty. Then to add 
two to numbers from ten to twenty. 

These exercises, also the first series, should be thor- 
oughly reviewed before taking up those of the third 
series. 

Thirds Exercises. — During the third series of exercises 
the pupils may be taught to add one to numbers from 
fifty to one hundred ; and two to numbers from twenty 
to fifty ; and three to numbers below ten. The train- 
ing should be sufficiently thorough to enable the pupils 
to add one or tico to odd as well as to even numbers ; 
also, that they may add them to any one of the num- 
bers, out of its order as well as in order. 



SECOND STEP.— ADDING. 

First Exercises. — The pupils may now be trained in 
adding concrete numbers without having the objects 
before them. The teacher may ask. How many are one 
apple and one apple ? " Two apples." 

How many are two apples and one apple ? " Three 
apples." 

How many are three boys and one boy? "Four 
boys." 

How many are four pencils and one pencil ? " Five 
pencils." 

In this manner teach pupils to exercise their con- 
ception of objects and numbers by adding one to num- 
bers, in order and out of order, as far as fifty. 



214 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

The pupils may then be trained in a similar manner 
to add two to numbers, in order and out of order, as far 
as twenty ; and three as far as ten. 

Second Exercises. — If the preceding exercises have 
been properly attended to, the pupils will now be pre- 
pared for adding three to numbers below fifty ; and sub- 
sequently to add/bwr and^ue to numbers below fifty. 
First let the balls on the numeral frame or other ob- 
jects be used ; then let them add concrete numbers, as 
in the first exercises of this step. 

During these lessons in this step the teacher should 
make frequent use of the blackboard, making marks to 
be added, and also represent the numbers by figures. 

During this stage a variety of exercises may be given, 
chiefly with a view of training the pupils more thor- 
oughly in adding numbers already presented — one, two, 
three, four, five — to numbers below fifty. The teacher 
might ask questions similar to the following, viz. : 

How many balls must be added to six balls to make 
seven balls ? 

How many cents must be added to three cents to 
make five cents ? 

How many pencils must be added to four pencils to 
make seven pencils ? 

How many apj)les must be added to five api^les to 
make nine apples ? 

How many marbles must be added to three marbles 
to make eight marbles ? 

How many cents must be added to twelve cents to 
make fourteen cents ? 

How many cents must be added to twenty-five cents 
to make twenty-eight cents ? 



ADDING. 215 

111 this manner the teacher may continue questions 
until all the numbers from one to five have been thus 
presented to be added to numbers below fifty. 

During these exercises the pupils may be required to 
tell what numbers may be added to produce each of the 
numbers below ten, thus : What numbers can you add 
to produce three f " Two and one ; one, one, and one ; 
one and two." 

What numbers can you add to produce /ve f " Four 
and one ; three and two ; two and two and one," etc. 

Third Exercises. — During these exercises the pupils 
may be taught to add six^ seven, eight, and oiine to num- 
bers below fifty, in the same manner that the numbers 
three, four, and five were taught. The training should 
be varied and thorough as in the other numbers, and 
carefully reviewed by questions with concrete numbers. 

THIRD STEP.— ADDING BY FIGURES. 

When the pupils have been thoroughly trained in the 
exercises of the " First and Second Steps of Adding," 
they will be prepared to learn to add by figures as the 
representatives of numbers. This work should be as 
carefully graded as the adding by objects. 

First Exercises. — Let the teacher commence the add- 
ing by figures by writing numbers on the blackboard 
in the following order, viz. : 

0123456'789 

iiiili ilii 

Then proceed to add them, and write the sum under 



216 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

each as the pupils tell the amount, thus : "Naught and 
one make one ; one and one make two ; two and one 
make three ; three and one make four," etc. 

Then let the adding be reversed, thus: "One and nine 
make ten; one and eight make nine; one and seven make 
eight," etc. 

Next the teacher may write another exercise, thus : 

0123456789 

222222222 '2 



and proceed to add through the line, and back again, as 
before, the teacher writing down the amount under each 
number as the pupils give it. 

The class might occasionally go through with this 
exercise in concert, but the teacher must depend chiefly 
upon individual drill. 

In the same manner the teacher may train the pupils 
to add three^ four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine to the 
numbers from naugJit to nine inclusive. 

Second Exercises. — The lessons in adding by figures 
in these exercises may consist of adding the numbers 
one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, to the 
numbers from ten to nineteen, as follows, viz. : 



10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



Let the children add as before, and the teacher write 
the sum under each as the pupils give it, thus : " Ten 
and one make eleven; eleven and one make twelve; 
twelve and one make thirteen," etc. 



ADDING. 217 

Then add these numbers in a reverse order, thus: 
"One and nineteen make twenty; one and eighteen 
make nineteen," etc. 

The teacher may next proceed to write other num- 
bers in a similar order, and train the pupils in adding 
them, as before ; 



10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


.17 


18 


19 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 



and so on through all the numbers to 
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 
9 9 9 9 9 9_5_?_^_? 

In all of these lessons the adding should be taught by 
whole numbers, as 15 and 9 make 24. Nothing should 
be said about adding unitSj or " carrying to the next 
column." 

Third Exercises. — The third series of lessons for add- 
ing by figures from the blackboard may consist of add- 
ing the numbers one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, 
eight, nine, to the numbers from twenty to fifty. These 
lessons may be conducted in a similar manner to those 
in the Second Exercises. 

Where the classes are small enough to admit of it, 
the children should have small slates, and, after they 
had learned to add the numbers on the blackboard, they 
should be allowed to copy them on slates. 

When the pupils have become familiar with adding 
K 



218 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

by figures as far as the lessons of the preceding Exer- 
cises, it will be an easy matter to arrange lessons and 
teach adding of one, two, three, four, etc., to numbers 
below one hundred. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

Great care should be taken that the pupils be not hurried over these 
early steps too rapidly. Teach the combination of only one number 
at a lesson. Do not attempt to teach the pupils to add two and two, 
three and four, and five and three at the same lesson, except in case 
of a review, after these combinations have been taught in their order. 
Those who understand the condition of the infant mind, and the pro- 
cesses by which it acquires knowledge, will not attempt to lead the 
children over too much ground at one time. Such a course would 
rob the lesson of its training power on their minds. The presentation 
of single ideas, single facts, single difficulties, should be the rule in 
the early steps of all primary instruction. Let each difficulty be mas- 
tered by itself. 



SUBTE ACTING. 219 



LESSONS FOR TRAINING IN 

SUBTEACTIKG. 

FIRST STEP.— SUBTRACTING OBJECTS. 

Subtracting should be commenced with objects as 
well as adding. Balls on the numeral frame, beans, 
pebbles, pencils, and other objects may be used in il- 
lustrating the first steps of subtracting. Marks on the 
blackboard will be found very useful in giving children 
their first ideas in taking one number away from an- 
other number. 

rirst Exercises. — The teacher may commence with 
the numeral frame, as in adding, and proceed as fol- 
lows, viz. : Arrange the balls on the wires in groups 
of otie, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine; then 
move one ball away from each group, asking the chil- 
dren to tell how many remain, thus : " One ball from 
one ball leaves no ball ; one ball from two balls leaves 
one ball; one ball from three balls leaves two balls; 
one ball from four balls leaves three balls," etc. Pro- 
ceed in a similar manner with other objects ; also with 
marks on the blackboard. 

When the pupils have become familiar with taking 
away one ball, one mark, or other object, the teacher 
may arrange the balls in groups of two, three, four, five, 
six, seven, eight, nine ; also arrange marks on the black- 
board in the same order. The teacher may move away 
tioo balls at a time, then rub out tioo marks at a time, 
and require the children to tell the result, thus ; " Two 



220 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

balls from two balls leave no ball; two marks from two 
marks leave no mark ; two balls from three balls leave 
one ball ; two marks from three marks leave one mark ; 
two balls from four balls leave two balls," etc. 

Proceed in a similar manner until the pupils have be- 
come familiar with taking away 07ie and two objects 
and marks from groups of less than twenty, and three, 
four, and^?;e from groups of less than ten. 

Second Exercises. — When the pupils have been thor- 
oughly trained in the first series of exercises, the teach- 
er may proceed in a similar manner to teach them to 
subtract one and two objects from groups numbering 
from twenty to fifty ; also to teach them to take away 
three, four, and.^ue objects from groups containing from 
ten to twenty. 

To save the time which would be required for ar- 
ranging a sufiicient number of groups, the teacher might 
commence with thirty, and take away one ball ; then 
one more from twenty-nine ; then one from twenty- 
eight ; then one from twenty-seven, etc. 

In the same manner may the teacher take two away 
from thirty ; then two from twenty-eight ; then two 
from twenty-six, etc. 

The same plan may be pursued with the numbers up 
to fifty, advancing ten each time. For the second les- 
son, commence with forty ; and when sufficient drill has 
been had upon this, commence*with fifty, and take away 
first 07ie at a time, then two at a time, down to twenty. 

Third Exercises. — ^During the lessons of this series of 
exercises, the pupils may be drilled in taking away ob- 
jects, marks, etc., from larger groups, both from even 



SUBTRACTING. 221 

and odd numbers. This may be done out of order as 
well as in order, and embrace all the numbers taught in 
the previous exercises, and also be extended to other 
and larger numbers. 



SECOND STEP.— SUBTRACTING. 

During the several exercises of this step the pupils 
may be trained in subtracting concrete numbers with- 
out having the objects before them. The lessons may 
be similar in character to those in the second step of 
adding. The teacher may say, Take one apple from 
two apples, and how many will remain ? " One apple." 

Take one apple from three apples, and how many will 
remain ? " Two af)ples." 

Take two apples from four apples, and how many 
will remain ? " Two apples." 

Proceed in a similar manner until the pupils can read- 
ily take two, three, four, or five numbers away, and tell 
the number that will remain. 

Subsequently these lessons may be extended, and the 
pupils trained in taking away six, seven, eight, and nine 
from numbers below fifty. 



THIRD STEP.— SUBTRACTING BY FIGURES. 

If the pupils have been properly taught in the two 
preceding steps of subtracting, they will now be pre- 
pared to learn how to subtract figures as the represent- 
atives of numbers. This work may be graded, and ar-' 
ranged on the blackboard in the same manner as the 
exercises in adding. 



222 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

First Exercise. — The teacher may write numbers on 
the blackboard in the following order, viz. : 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


V 


8 


9 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



Then proceed with subtracting and writing the num- 
ber left under each, as the pupils tell the number, thus : 
" One from one leaves naught ; one from two leaves one ; 
one from three leaves two ; one from four leaves three," 
etc. 

Let the subtracting be reversed thus: "One from 
nine leaves eight ; one from eight leaves seven," etc. 

The teacher may next teach them to take two away 
from other numbers, thus ; 

23456789 

2 22 2 2 2 2 2 



Then to subtract three, thus : 

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 



These lessons may be extended, as with adding, from 
10 to 19 ; afterward from 20 to 29, etc. 



ORDER OF NUMBERS. 223 



LESSONS ON THE 

OEDER OF KUMBEES. 

It is necessary to teach children the succession of 
numbers in their order, according to the relative posi- 
tion in which the objects that they represent are placed, 
as first, second, third, fourth, etc. The importance of a 
special lesson on the order of numbers arises from the 
circumstance that frequently the idea of one, two, three, 
etc., is confounded with the notion w^hich properly be- 
longs to first, second, third, etc. 

A successful mode of developing the ideas of first, 
second, third, fourth, etc., would be to let the children 
count the rounds in a ladder, as first round, second 
round, third round, etc. 

The pupils might be required to walk and count their 
steps, as first step, second step, third step, etc. 

A variety of objects should be counted thus, as first 
finger, second finger, third finger; first book, second 
book, etc., until a sufficient variety of exercises have 
been given to enable the children to clearly understand 
the order and names of numbers. They may be asked. 
Which is the first meal in the day? which the second? 
the third ? Which is the first day of the week? which 
the second? 



224 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



HOW TO TEACH 

ADDING WITHOUT COUNTmG. 

Those avLo have observed the various ways by 
which children add are aware that very few who 
have not been sjoecially trained learn to add without 
counting. Much that is called adding is nothing more 
than counting. It is a common occurrence, when a 
pupil is asked what is the sum oi fourteen and tliree^ 
for that pupil to say to himself, " Fifteen, sixteen, sev- 
enteen," and then answer aloud, '"'' Seventeen.'^'' Many 
children count their fingers, some count marks on their 
slates, some count swinging movements of their head 
or other parts of the body, ancl never learn to add 
properly. 

Instead of allowing them to acquire the habit of 
counting to find the sum of two numbers, they should 
be trained in combining numbers by adding, so that 
y^ they will become able to perform addition without 
counting as rapidly and accurately as they do multi- 
plication. This desirable attainment may be achieved 
by teaching children to observe the results of the va- 
rious combinations of numbers from one to nine, and 
training them to compare all other combinations with 
these. The process to be chiefly relied upon for this 
purpose may be called 



Adding by Decades. — It is a familiar fact that children 
may learn to know readily that '7 and 5 make 12, and 
yet not know that 17 and 5 make 22, or that 27 and 5 



ADDING WITHOUT COUNTING. 225 

make 32. The reason of this is owing partly to the fact 
of the children not having been taught to observe that 
the result in every case, where two given figures are 
added, is always the same ; and partly to the fact of 
their not having been made familiar with these combi- 
nations in large numbers. But it will be found to be a 
very simple and easy matter to teach children to add 
each of the nine digits to every number from one to 
ninety-nine by this plan. 

Let the teacher write the following combinations on 
the blackboard in the order and positions given here : 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 



Then require the pupils to repeat these combinations 
as follows, viz. : 2 and 2 are four; 12 and 2 are 14 ; 22 
and 2 are 24 ; 32 and 2 are 34, etc. Next lead the pu- 
pils to observe the fact that the numbers 2 and 2 always 
make 4 when added. 

The pupils may afterward rej)eat the same combina- 
tions as follows, viz. : 2 and 2 are 4; 2 and 12 are 14; 
2 and 22 are 24, etc. Then require them to repeat the 
same in a reverse order, as 92 and 2 are 94 ; 82 and 2 
are 84 ; 72 and 2 are 74, etc. 

Next the teacher may erase the several sums 4, 14, 
24, 34, etc., and require the children to repeat these ex- 
amples, adding and giving the answers as before. 

Finally require the pupils to copy the figures of these 
combinations on their slates as ten sums, and add each, 
and write under them the several amounts or answers. 

"When the combinations of 2 and 2, by decades, have 
thus been learned, so that the pupils can readily add 
K2 



226 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

them out of order, the teacher may arrange on the 
blackboard the combinations of 3 and 2, thus : 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


V3 


83 


93 


5 


15 


25 


35- 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 



Proceed with the oral repetition of these combina- 
tions through all the various forms used with 2 and 2, 
Lead the pupils to notice that 3 and 2 always make 5. 
Also require the pupils to copy these sums on their 
slates, and add them. 

Observe the same plan of procedure for each of the 
folio win Qj conibinations : 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


^7 


77 


87 


97 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 
2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 



11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 



ADDING WIT'HOUT COUNTING. 227 

When all the combinations of 2 have been taught, as 
before described, up to 99 and 2, require the pupils to 
review them by writing on the blackboard these com- 
binations out of the order in which they were first pre- 
sented, thus : 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


25 


36 


47 


58 


69 


75 


86 


97 


17 


19 


49 


79 


69 


39 


89 


29 


99 


59 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 



and so on. These combinations should also be reviewed 
by questions from the teacher as follows : How many 
are 8 and 2 ? 19 and 2 ? 37 and 2 ? 49 and 2 ? etc. 

By thus frequently changing the manner of present- 
ing and repeating these numbers, the attention of the 
pupils will be secured, and the benefit will be tenfold 
greater than from the same number of repetitions in 
one form, in which the words might be repeated with- 
out that attention of the mind which would secure a 
repetition of the adding. With a class of children read- 
ing in a First Reader, the combinations of 2 would fur- 
nish sufficient exercises for half an hour a day for a week 
or two. 

The teacher may observe the same general directions, 
and take up, during each succeeding week, the combi- 
nations of a new number, until additions of all the nine 
digits have been thus thoroughly taught and reviewed. 
The same arrangement of the figures should be observed 
on the blackboard, in the combinations of the 3, 4, 5, 
etc., as those given for the combinations of 2. 

The following arrangement will show how the num- 
bers may be placed on the blackboard : 



228 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


T 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 



Let these combinations of 3 be extended to 99 and 3. 
Then review these out of order, as with the 2. Next 
present in the same way and teach the combinations 
of 4. Then follow with the full combinations of 5, 6, 
7, 8, and 9, in order. 

Review of the Combinations. — When all the additions 
have been taught as already described, they should be 
reviewed in a different order. This review will be ap- 
propriate work for the next class above the one where 
these combinations are first taught. The following ar- 
rangement will indicate a good plan for this review. 

Place on the blackboard all the combinations which 
produce 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, as follows: 







Combinations that Produce 0. 






5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


6Q 


76 


86 


96 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 



ADDING WITHOUT COUNTING. 229 



3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 






Combinations that Produce 1. 






1 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


11 


21 


31 


41 


51 


61 


71 


81 


91 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


11 


21 


31 


41 


51 


61 


71 


81 


91 


101 


3 


■ 3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


11 


21 


31 


41 


51 


61 


71 


81 


91 


101 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


11 


21 


31 


41 


51 


61 


71 


81 


91 


101 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


11 


21 


31 


41 


51 


61 


71 


81 


91 


101 



Combinations that Produce 2. 

111111111 1 

1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 

2 1222324252627282 92 



230 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


102 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


102 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


102 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


102 



Combinations that Produce 3. 



1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


3 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4" 


4 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


103 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


103 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


103 



Combinations that Produce 4. 



1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


3 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 



ADDING WITHOUT COUNTING. 231 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


104 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


104 


1 


n 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


n 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


104 






Combinations that Produce 5. 






1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


6 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


105 


n 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


105 



Combinations that Produce 6. 

111111111 1 

£ 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 

6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96 



232 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


13 


23 


33 


43 


53 


63 


73 


83 


93 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76. 


86 


96 


1 


1 


1 


V 


7 


7 


1 


7 


7 


7 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


106 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


106 



Combinations that Produce 7. 



1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


107 






Combinations that Produce 8. 






1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 



ADDING WITHOUT COUNTING. 233 



2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


8 


19 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


14 


24 


34 


44 


54 


64 


74 


84 


94 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


108 



Combinations that Produce 9. 



1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


8 


18 


28 


38 


48 


58 


68 


78 


88 


98 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


7 


17 


27 


37 


47 


57 


67 


77 


87 


97 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


6 


16 


26 


36 


46 


56 


66 


76 


86 


96 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


9 


19 


29 


39 


49 


59 


69 


79 


89 


99 



These combinations should be added in order and out 
of order, until the pupils can instantlj^ tell what the sum 
of any two figures will make ; also the sum of either of 



234 TEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

the digits with any number below 100. The additions 
should be made upon their slates as well as orally. 

These exercises of adding by decades will furnish 
profitable employment for the usual time devoted to 
arithmetic in the classes that are reading in a First 
Reader (^. e., the second reading-book) during a period 
of some two months. However, it would be more use- 
ful to have this drill interspersed with other exercises 
in arithmetic, and made to extend over a period of four 
months. Careful attention to this matter at this stage 
will save time in the subsequent progress of the pupils. 

The teacher should follow these drills by decades, 
with examples on the blackboard for the pupils to add, 
and lead them to observe the application of the fact that 
adding the same numbers always gives the same sum. 



2 


3 


4 


5 


3 


4 


3 


3 


3 


4 


1 


2 


3 


2 


5 


1 


1 


5 


4 


5 


3 


4 


4 


3 


2 


5 


5 


2 


5 


3 


2 


3 


2 


4 


4 


3 


4 


3 


2 


4 



Let the pupils add each of these columns up and 
down, and the teacher Avrite the sum underneath. The 
adding should be performed without counting or repeat- 
ing the several partial sums, thus : "Two, five, ^vK^eight; 
three, seven, nine, twelve; two, six, nine, thirteen^'* etc. 

Several similar examples may subsequently»be given 
on the blackboard ; also for the pupils to write on their 
slates. These should be added in the same manner as 
before. Gradually these single columns should be 
lengthened, until the pupils can add ten or more fig- 
ures. During this time nothing should be said about 
" carrying." Each column will be a complete example 
of itself. Let much practice be given in thus adding 



ADDING WITHOUT COUNTING. 235 

single columns, and care taken to prevent the pupils 
from resorting to counting. Should one pupil fail to 
know readily the sum of 16 and V, call the attention of 
that one to the fact that 6 and 7 make IS ; then ask 
what figure 16 and 1 will give. First train the pupils 
in correct habits of adding ; let the drill for rapidity 
follow afterward. 

Changes in Manner of Exercises Useful. — Children need 
to have the form of their exercises frequently changed, 
although the character and object of them should re- 
main the same. These changes constitute an import- 
ant means of meeting that love of change and fondness 
for variety which is a prominent condition of children's 
natures. To aid the teacher in introducing suitable 
modifications in drilling the pupils in accurate and 
rapid adding, the following plan is suggested, which 
may be modified as the circumstances and condition of 
the class may suggest. 

How a Class may Drill Itself.— Select nine pupils from 
the class, place them in front of and facing the other 
members of the class, and assign number one to the 
first, number two to the second, three to the third, and 
so on to nine, requesting each pupil to remember what 
number was assigned it. Then give the number tico 
for each pupil in turn to ask the class to add to the 
number that was assigned to himself For instance, 
the first pupil would say, " One and two .^" The class 
would answer in concert, ''''Threes The next child 
would say, '■'Two and twof'' The class would answer 
as before, '^Four^ The next pupil, '■''Three and twoT'' 
Class, '''Five;'''' and so on until each of the nine had 



236 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS, 

asked the class wliat is the sum of two and the number 
assigned to himself. 

That those pupils who are not able to answer readily 
may have an opportunity to learn the answers, each 
question may be repeated twice, thus : Child, " Three 
and three ?" Class, " Six." Child, "Three and three ?" 
Class, "Six." Next child, "Four and three?" Class, 
" Seven." Child, " Four and three ?" Class, " Seven ;" 
and so on. 

When the pupils have become familiar with the com- 
binations in the regular order, as indicated above, let 
tlie numbers be assigned to the nine pupils promis- 
cuously, thus : First pupil, 2 ; second pupil, 4 ; third, 
f) ; fourth, 8 ; fifth, 1 ; sixth, 3 ; seventh, 5 ; eighth, 7 ; 
ninth, 9. The exercise should proceed as before. 

After sufiicient drill has been had with a variety of 
arrangements and modifications, and the pupils can add 
accurately and rapidly, the mode of answering may be 
changed by requesting all the members of the class to 
stand while the teacher gives the numbers to be added, 
and each pupil answers singly and in turn. But as a 
pupil fails to answer promptly and correctly, he must 
take his seat. The efibrt of each pupil to remain stand- 
ing by answering correctly will be an excellent incen- 
tive. The one who remains standing after all the other 
pupils have failed may be declared the champion. 

On the occasion of the next exercise of the class in 
adding, the champion may take his place in front of the 
class, and ask each member of the class one question. 
All who answer correctly may in turn each ask the 
champion one question. Should he fail to answer either 
question correctly and promptly, the pupil who asked 
the question may take the champion's place, when he 



ADDING WITHOUT COUNTING. 237 

shall be allowed to ask each member of the class one 
question, and those who do not fail may in turn each 
ask him one question, as before. 

Should a champion answer correctly all the questions 
P'ut to him, he shall theii be entitled to ask each mem- 
ber of the class two questions in succession. Those 
who answer correctly may each in turn ask the cham- 
pion two questions. Should the champion not fail this 
time, he shall be allowed to ask the members of the 
class three questions ; and they may ask him, as before, 
three questions. These exercises may be continued 
from day to day, increasing the difficulties.as the pupils 
acquire the ability to easily overcome them. 

This self-drilling of the class is chiefly valuable as a 
review of the adding of numbers learned by the previ- 
ous exercises ; and it may be extended so as to em- 
brace all of the numbers included in the lessons for add- 
ing by decades. 

The success of this plan of class drilling will dejoend 
very much upon the manner in which it is carried out. 
The pupils should be required to ash and answer all 
questions promptly and rapidly. When a class has been 
thoroughly trained in this manner, the pupils will be 
able to answer the questions as rapidly as a teacher 
can ask them, although they embrace such combina- 
tions as 19 and 7; 17 and 9; 26 and 8; 25 and 9; 48 
and 9 ; 74 and 7 ; 69 and 6 ; 87 and 5 ; 39 and 9, etc. 



238 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

NUMEEATION AND NOTATIOK 

FIRST STEP.— NUMERATION. 

"When the first steps in Numeration are undertaken, 
the teacher may write a column of figures on the black- 
board like the one marked a: 



a. 


. h. 


c. 


d. 


e. 





00 


10 


20 


30 


1 


10 


11 


21 


31 


2 


20 


12 


22 


32 


3 


30 


13 


23 


33 


4 


40 


14 


24 


34 


5 


50 


15 


25 


35 


6 


60 


16 


26 


36 


7 


70 


17 


27 


37 


8 


80 


18 


28 


38 


9 


90 


19 


29 


39 



First Exercise. — The children may be taught to read 
the column a as representing objects, thus : " No ball, 
one ball, two balls, three balls, four balls, five balls," etc. 
Then as "No apples, one apple, two apples, three ap- 
ples," etc. Then as "No cent, one cent, two cents, 
three cents," etc. When the pupils have read these 
numbers in this concrete form several times with difier- 
ent objects, the teacher may tell them that there is an- 
other name — ^m^7, which means a single thing — that 
may be used with these figures. We may read this 



NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 239 

column " No unit, one unit, two units, three units, four 
units," etc. 

When the children have become familiar with column 
a as units, the teacher may take the numeral frame, and 
place ten balls in a group on one wire, and call it one 
ten. Next another group of ten balls may be placed on 
the next wire, and both together called tioo tens. Then 
another group of ten balls may be placed on the next 
wire, and the three groups called three tens. 

Illustrate Tens with Bundles of Sticks. — At this stage 
the teacher may provide several small sticks, about the 
size of common matches. In place of sticks, slips cut 
from cards might be used. Taking several single sticks, 
request the pupils to count te^i ; then tie these up in a 
bundle, and call it 07ie ten. Let them count ten more, 
and tie them up as before, and call it one ten. Placing 
the last bundle by the side of the first one, say. Here 
are tioo tens. Proceed in the same way until five or six 
bundles have been made. 

Now take single sticks and the bundles of ten, and 
place them in groups to correspond with the figures on 
the blackboard, thus : 

One ten for 10. 

One ten and one stick for 11. 

One ten and tioo sticks for 12. 

One ten and three sticks for 13, etc. 

Now the teacher may write a column of figures on 
the blackboard by the side of column «, arranged as in 
column h. The 10 in this column may be shown to rep- 
resent one group often balls ; the 20, two groups often 
balls ; the 30, three groups of ten balls, etc. Then, 
pointing at the figures in this column (^), it may be read 



240 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

by the teacher, and then by the pupils, as follows, viz. : 
" No ten, one ten, two tens, three tens, four tens, five 
tens, six tens, seven tens, eight tens, nine tens." 

Second Exercise. — "With the second exercise the teach- 
er may point to column a, and request the pupils to read 
it as follows, viz. : " No unit, one unit, two units, three 
units," etc. Then to read column h as '' No ten, one 
ten, two tens, three tens, four tens," etc. 

Next the teacher may write column c on the black- 
board, and teach the pupils to read it as follows, viz. : 
" One ten, one ten and one unit, one ten and two units, 
one ten and three units, one ten and four units," etc. 

The same column (c) may also be read as follows, 
viz. : " Ten, one ten ; eleven, one ten and one unit ; 
twelve, one ten and two units ; thirteen, one ten and 
three units," etc. 

Third Exercise. — Column d may now be written on 
the blackboard, and the pupils taught to read it as fol- 
lows, viz. : " Twenty, two tens ; twenty-one, two tens 
and one unit; twenty-two, two tens and two units; 
twenty-three, two tens and three units ; twenty-four, 
two tens and four units," etc. 

Next let column e be placed on the blackboard, and 
read in the same manner. Then the other numbers from 
40 to 99 may be written, and read in a similar w^ay. 

FIRST STEP.— NOTATION. 

When the ]3upils can readily read columns of units 
and tens as in the preceding exercises, they may be 
required to write these numbers on slates. 



NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 241 

First Exercise. — The teacher may dictate the num- 
bers to be written as follows : Write two units ; write 
five units; four units; nine units; three units; eight 
units ; six units ; one unit ; seven units. 

When the pupils can readily write columns of units 
under each other from dictation, let them proceed to 
write column c from dictation, thus : Write one ten ; 
write one ten and one unit; write one ten and two 
units ; one ten and three units, etc. 

!N"ext let the pupils write from dictation column c7, 
first in order,- then out of order, thus : Two tens ; two 
tens and one unit ; two tens and two units ; two tens 
and three units, etc. 

Then two tens and three units; two tens and six 
units ; two tens and nine units ; two tens and four 
units ; two tens and seven units, etc. 

Second Exercise. — The writing of numbers may be 
continued from dictation, as in the first exercise. When 
the pupils can readily write in that manner any number 
below 100, these numbers may be dictated as follows, 
and the pupil required to tell hoAV he wrote the number : 

Write twenty-four. How did you write it? "With 
two tens and four units." Write thirty-six. How did 
you write it? "With three tens and six units." Write 
seventeen. What did you write? "One ten and'seven 
units." 



SECOND STEP.— NUMEKATION AND NOTATION. 

During this step the pupils may be taught to read 
numbers by imits, tens, hundreds, through three places, 
or the period of units, and also to write them. To lead 

L 



242 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

the pupils to see that ten tens make one hundred^ take 
the numeral frame, and let them count ten balls on each 
often wires. Then count the groups often, thus : "One 
ten, two tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, six tens, 
seven tens, eight tens, nine tens, ten tens." Then let 
the pupils add them by tens, thus : " Ten, twenty, thir- 
ty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety, one hun- 
dred." Then ten tens make how many? "One hun- 
dred." 

How many balls in ten tens ? " One hundred balls." 

Illustrate Hundreds with Bundles of Sticks. — At this 
stage the teacher wilf find, the use of bundles of small 
sticks one of the best plans for developing the idea of 
hundreds in the minds of young pupils. Having pro- 
vided several hundred of these small sticks, as in the 
exercise for illustrating tens in the " First Step of Nu- 
meration," and tied up some thirty or forty bundles of 
ten each, let the pupils count ten of these bundles, then 
tie them up in one large bundle, and call it one hundred. 
Then let them count ten more bundles, and tie them up 
as before, and call it one hundred. Placing this by the 
side of the first hundred bundle, say. Here are two hun- 
dreds. Proceecl in the same way to count and tie up 
three or more bundles of a hundred. 

Now the teacher may ask the pupils. How many sticks 
are there in one bundle of ten ^ or one small bundle ? "Ten 
sticks." 

How many sticks in two bundles of ten ? " Twenty 
sticks." 

How many sticks in five of the tens? "Fifty sticks." 

How many of these bundles make ninety sticks ? 
" Nine bundles." 



NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 243 

How many bundles of ten make one hundred sticks ? 

"Ten bundles." 

How many tens make a hundred? "Ten tens." 
The teacher may now write the group of figures 

marked / on the blackboard. 



/ 


9- 


h. 


i. 


100 


123 


156 


101 


200 


321 


201 


320 



Then take one of the hundred bundles to reiDresent 
the first number, and tico of the hundred bundles to 
rej)resent the second number. 

Xext the teacher may write tlie group of figures 
marked g, and represent each with the bundles of 
sticks. For the first number take 07ie of the hundred 
bundles, tv^o of the ten bundles, and three sticks. For 
the second number of this group, take three of the hun- 
dred bundles, two of the ten bundles, and one stick. 
Proceed in a similar manner Avith groups marked h 
and ^. 

Pointing to the^rs^ place on the right of each group 
of three figures, the teacher asks. What is this place 
called? "Unit's place." 

In the same manner, pointing to the second place in 
each group of three figures, the teacher asks. What is 
this place called? "Ten's place." 

In the same way, point to the third place, and ask, 
What is this place called ? " Hundred's place." 

You may now name each place as I point at it. 
" Units, tens, hundreds ; tens, units ; tens, hundreds, 
units ; units, tens, hundreds." 

How many units does it take for one ten f " Ten 
units." 



244 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

How many tens does it take /br 07ie hundred? "Ten 
tens." 

The teacher may write figures on the blackboard, and 
require the children to read them as units, tens, hun- 
dreds, thus : " Four units, six tens, seven hundreds ;" 
"Two hundreds, one ten, three units." 

The pupils may now take their slat^ and write fig- 
ures from dictation as follows, viz. : 

" Write four units and five tens ; write three units, 
four tens, and five hundreds ; write eight hundreds, two 
tens, and one unit ; write six units, no tens, four hun- 
dreds ; write three hundred and twenty-four," etc. 

When the pupils can readily read and write any num- 
ber of hundreds, units, and tens, and can tell where each 
place is in any line of figures, they may be taught the 
numeration and notation of the period of thousands, as 
in the third step. 



THIRD STEP.— NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 

At this stage the pupils may be successfully taught 
to read and write numbers in the period of thousands. 
If they have been properly taught to read and write 
the period of units^ this can be easily accomplished. 

Lead the pupils to observe, by figures on the black- 
board, that the smallest number represented by three 
figures is 100 ; that the largest number represented by 
three figures is 999; also that we must use/owr figures 
to represent 1000. Tell the pupils that \X\q fourth place 
is called thousands. Then write the following figures 
on the blackboard, thus : 



NUMEEATION AND NOTATION. 245 

Commencing with figure 1, point at each in order, and 
repeat its name, thus : units, te7is, himdreds, thousands. 
Then point at the same figures again, and let the pupils 
read them, thus : " Units, tens, hundreds, thousand^." 

When they have read them in this order two or three 
times, let them read in a reversed order ; also out of or- 
der, as " Units, hundreds, tens, thousands." 

Now ask, What is the first place called ? " Units." 
• .What is the second place called ? 

What is the third place called ? 

What is the fourth place called ? 

Which is unit's place ? 

Which is thousand's place ? 

Next the teacher may write on the blackboard the 
following figures, thus : 



Commencing with figure one, as before, point at each 
in order, and repeat its name, thus: units, tens, hun- 
dreds, thousands, teiis of thousa7ids. Then j^oiut at the 
same figures again, and let the pupils read them, thus : 
" Units, tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands." 

Proceed as before to read them in order and out of 
order, and to ask the name of each place, etc. 

Subsequently write the following figures on the black- 
board, thus : 

6 5 4 3 2 1 

Point at and repeat the name of each, as before ; then 
let the pupils read them, thus : "Units, tens, hundreds, 
thousands, tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands." 

When the pupils are able to name each place readily, 
in order and out of order, they may be required to write 



24G PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

numbers through hundreds of thousands^ from dictation, 
thus : Write three hundreds, two tens, one unit ; four 
units, six tens, three hundreds, four thousands ; two thou- 
sands, no hundreds, eight tens, no units; three units, 
four tens, five hundreds, six thousands, seven tens of 
thousands ; no units, two tens, no hundreds, three thou- 
sands, four tens of thousands, five hundreds of thou- 
sands. 

Subsequently dictate numbers as follows: Six hun- 
dred and fifty-four thousands, three hundred and twen- 
ty-one, etc. After each number has been thus dictated, 
ask the pupils. What figure did you write in unit's 
place ? What in hundred's place ? What in tens of 
thousand's place ? etc. 

When the pupils have been thus drilled until they 
can readily read and write any number from units to 
hundreds of thousands, they may be introduced to the 
period of millions. But care should be taken to first 
train them thoroughly through the period of thousands. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

Many teachers make a serious mistake in supposing that the early 
steps in reading and writing numbers may be rapidly taken at first, 
and afterward reviewed until the pupils know them thoroughly. Com- 
pleteness of knowledge can be secured with the least labor and least 
time by taking each step in its appropriate order, and mastering it be- 
fore attempting the next one. During this stage it should be remem- 
bered that the work to he accomplished is to teach the pupils to read 
and write numbers correctly. This object should therefore be kept in 
view, and no attempt made at teaching the pupils to add the examples 
given for training in numeration and notation during this stage of in- 
struction. 



NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 247 



FOURTH STEP.— NUMERATION AND NOTATION. 

After the pupils have become familiar Avith reading 
and writing numbers through hundreds of thousands, 
place on the blackboard the following group of figures, 
thus : 

98 7, 65 4, 321 

These numbers may be read by the teacher and pu- 
pils in the same manner as were those of the period of 
thousands. The attention of the pupils may be called 
to the fact that these numbers are divided into groups, 
which are called units, thousands, and millions ; that 
the first group contains units, tens, hundreds of imits ; 
the second group, units, tens, hundreds of thousands ; 
the third group, units, tens, hundreds of millions. 

When the pupils can read the numbers readily through 
millions, let them be taught to write these from dicta- 
tion, as in the period of thousands. 



248 



PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



ADDITIOK 

FIRST STEP. 

In commencing the lessons in written addition, the 
examples should be simple and short at first, and so 
arranged that there will be nothing " to carry." The 
following examples will illustrate this step : 



24 boys. 


15 cents. 


36 pens. 


215 dollars. 


5 " 

29 boys. 


13 " 
28 cents. 


23 " 
59 pens. 


163 " 
378 dollars. 


623 books. 


180 pnnils. 


183 days. 


409 men. 


145 " 


217 " 


216 " 


260 " 




SECOND STEP. 





When the pupils can write and add readily the small 
examples similar to those given above, they may be 
taught to add and " carry tens." 



18 boys. 


67 men. 


309 men. 


4 " 


26 " 


465 " 


2 boys. 


93 men. 




824 


586 


475 


168 


234 


268 



Thus proceed, increasing the difficulties gradually, 
until the pupils can readily add large numbers of four 
or five lines. There should be given, also, much prac- 



ADDITION. 249 

tice in adding examples with one, two, or three col- 
umns, with eight or ten figures in each column. Avoid 
the habit of giving large and long examples for addi- 
tion, which tend to exhaust the patience of the pupils, 
and to discourage them by many and great difficulties 
at the same time, during the early lessons in this sub- 
ject. Much practice should be given in adding num- 
bers composed of hundreds, until the pupils are able 
to add accurately and readily long columns, before the 
examples are extended to numbers which comprise 
thousands and millions. 

Large and long examples may occasionally be given, 
when the pupils have become familiar with smaller 
numbers, as test examples, to encourage them in per- 
forming difficult tasks. 

L2 



250 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



SUBTEACTIOK. 

FIRST STEP. 

The first lessons in written subtraction, like those 
of addition, should comprise short, simple examples, 
and be so arranged that there will be nothing " to 
borrow." The following examples will illustrate this 
step : 

9 apples. 18 cents. 29 pens. 

5 " A '' 16 " 

T " IT " 13 " 

825 693 976 

414 382 853 



SECOND STEP. 

As an introductory step to an illustration of "bor- 
rowing" in subtraction, let the pupils subtract all the 
numbers from 1 to 9 from 10, thus : 

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 

1_2_^456'789 

"9~8~^"6~5"4~3'^"T 

Next they may subtract each of these numbers from 
11 in the same manner ; then from 12 ; then from 13 ; 
and so on to 19, thus : 

19 19 19 19 10 19 19 19 19 
_1_^_^_4_5 G 1 8 9 
18 17 161514131^1110 



SUBTRACTION. 251 

Subsequently illustrate borrowing by an example in 
dimes and cents, thus : A man has 5 dimes and 2 cents, 
and wishes to pay 2 dimes and 6 cents. Since he has 
only 2 cents, he must get one of his dimes changed into 
ten cents, then he will have twelve cents, and can pay 
the six cents and have six cents remaining. He can 
also pay 2 dimes from this 4 dimes which he has after 
changing one of them, and he will then have 2 dimes 
left — in all, 2 dimes and six cents remaining. The 
following examples will illustrate the appearance of 
the work on the blackboard when performed in accord- 
ance with the above explanation. 



4 10 


5 10 


2 10 




7 9 9 10 


^ 2 


j6 4 


B 5 


4 


X0 X0 


2 6 
2 6 


3 8 
2 6 


2 6 
9 


3 
1 


B 5 
5 3 6 7 



2 6 3 8 

It will be seen that by the plan of taking away the 
number borrowed, there is no need of any " carrying 
to the next number in the lower line" to pay what was 
borrowed in the upper line. So soon as the pupils un- 
derstand the process, so as to be able to perform sub- 
traction in this way, and represent it as above, they 
may be taught to remember that one has been bor- 
rowed from an upper figure, and that it must be called 
07ie less than it appears in consequence of this. To as- 
sist in remembering that one has been borrowed, a dot 
may be placed over the figure, as in the examples be- 
low. 

In subtracting this example, the teacher might 
say, 6 from 15 leaves 9 ; 3 from 11 leaves 8 ; 4 
from 12 leaves 8j 5 from 7 leaves 2. 



2889 



252 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



800 000 000 
411888 999 
388,111,001 



In the above example, the subtraction might be per- 
formed as follows: 9 from 10 leaves 1 ; 9 from 9 leaves 
; 9 from 9 leaves ; 8 from 9 leaves 1 ; 8 from 9 
leaves 1 ; 8 from 9 leaves 1 ; 1 from 9 leaves 8 ; 1 from 
9 leaves 8 ; 4 from 7 leaves 3. 

When pupils become familiar with this process of 
subtraction, it is both simple and raj)id. Besides, it can 
be easily understood by children, while the common 
plan of " carrying one to the next figure in the subtra- 
hend, to pay for the teii that was borrowed in the min- 
uend," seems about as difiicult of explanation as why 
one should pay Brown for that which he borrowed of 
Smith. 



MULTIPLYING NUMBEKS. 253 



MULTIPLYING NUMBEES. 

Multiplying is an artificial process derived from ad- 
dition. Children usually tend in their reckoning to fall 
back on the natural process of addition. To obviate 
this, the artificial process should be taught through the 
natural one. 

First Step.— Illustrate the first steps in multiplying 
by objects, as beans,' buttons, pencils, or balls, on the nu- 
meral frame. Show the pupils that 2 balls and 2 balls 
make 4 balls, then that two times two balls make four 
balls ; that 2 pencils and 2 pencils make 4 pencils, then 
that ttco times two pencils make four pencils, and so on. 

Second Step. — For the second step, place numbers on 
the blackboard, and commence teaching the Multiplica- 
tion Table as follows, viz. : 
2x2=4 
6x2 = 6 j^g^ ^^^ pupils read these as if written 

^ ~ out in full, two times two are four : three 

5 v/ 2 10 . »' ^ 

^ ~ times two are six, etc. 
6X2 = 

Vx2 = 

The attention of the pupils should be directed to the 
fact that each succeeding product is two greater than 
its preceding one, as 4, 6, 8, 10, etc. This will give them 
the key to the table, and they may now be required to 
write it out on their slates, in order, from 2x2 to 1 2 x 2, 
or even to 20 x 2, and to write the product of each mul- 
tiplication. When this table of 2 has been learned in 



254 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

its true order, it may be reviewed in a different form, 
thus : 
3x2 = 
5x2 = 
7x2 = 

9x2= Let the pupils be required to give the 

6x2= products of each of these multiplications on 
8x2= their slates ; also to recite them orally. 
12x2 = 
11X2 = 
15x2 = , etc. 

Then proceed to teach the table of threes in the*same 
manner, first using the numeral frame, or marks on the 
blackboard, to illustrate the multiplying of threes : 
3x3 are 9 
4x3 " 12 
5x3 " 15 
6x3 " 18 
7x3 " 
8x3 " 
The pupils should use their slates as before, and when 
this table has been learned in its order, let it be reviewed' 
in the same manner as that of twos ; then review the 
tables of 2 and 3 together, thus : 

4x3= 5x2= 

2x2= 8x3= 

6x3= 4x2= 

8x2= 7x3= 

5x3= 2x3= 

7x2= 9x2 = , etc. 

Proceed in the same manner to teach the tables of all 
the numbers to 12 times 12. Frequent reviews are nec- 
essary for learning the tables thoroughly but the re- 



MULTIPLYING NUMBERS. 255 

views should not be mere repetitions in the same form 
as that used in learning the table. Children need vari- 
ety to keep up their interest. This variety may be had, 
to some extent, by changes in the mode of conducting 
the exercise. 

Multiplication Table Reviewed.— For a review of the 
entire multiplication table, the following plans will be 
found useful : 

4x5 are 20, and 5x4 are 20. 



5x6 




30, 


a 


6X5 


a 


30. 


6x7 




42, 


a 


7X6 


i( 


42. 


9X6 




54, 


a 


6X9 


u 


54. 


3X8 




24, 


u 


8X3 


u 


24. 


8x5 




40, 


(; 


5X8 


u 


40. 


9x7 




63, 


u 


7x9 


a 


63. 


8x9 




72, 


a 


9x8 


u 


72, 



and so on through the tables. 

During this stage of the instruction the pupils may 
be required to answer questions in the following forms : 
How many are three fours ? five threes ? four sevens ? 
eight threes? seven fives? twelve nines? six eights? 
Also, How many sixes make thirty ? sevens make forty- 
two ? eights make fifty-six ? 

The pupils should be drilled upon the multiplication 
table in various ways until they attain the ability of 
giving the product of any tw^o numbers below 12 times 
12 instantly. By these drill -exercises the mind ac- 
quires a kind of self-acting habit in multiplying, which 
enables it to perform this work with great ease and ra- 
pidity. This power seams to be somewhat akin to that 
in the movements of the fingers of a skillful player on 
the piano — without conscious exertion of the mind. 



256 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Division Tables. — By reviewing the multiplication ta- 
ble in still another form, the division table may be taught, 
thus : 

6 times 7 are 42 ; 7 is contained in 42 six times. 

7 times 6 are 42 ; 6 is contained in 42 seven times. 
This may be j)laced on the blackboard, thus : 

4 times 7 are 28 ; 7 times 4 are 28. 

4 in 28 — 7 times; 7 in 28 — 4 times. 

5 times 7 are 35 ; 7 times 5 are 35. 

5 in 35 — 7 times ; 7 in 35 — 5 times. 

6 times 7 are 42 ; 7 times 6 are 42. 
6 in 42 — 7 times ; 7 in 42 — 6 times. 
Continue this exercise through 12 times 12. 
Dividing numbers should be illustrated on the nu- 
meral frame, and with other objects. 

Questions may also be asked in the following man- 
ner: How many sixes in 42 ? How many sevens in 35 ? 
How many eights in 72 ? etc. 



EQUAL PARTS, OR FRACTIONS. 257 

LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

EQUAL PAKTS, OR FRACTIONS. 

It is important that children should early obtain 
ideas oi equal parts of objects and of numbers, also of 
their comparative size. Ideas of halves and quarters 
of whole things may be readily illustrated by cutting 
an apple into two equal parts ^ and another ripple into 
four equal parts. 

Halves and Fourths. — Ideas oi halms snid fourths of 
numbers may be illustrated with the numeral frame, 
thus : Having placed two balls in one group, four balls 
in another, and six balls in another, ask the children. 
How many balls must be moved away from the two 
balls to leave one half of them? How many balls 
must .be *moved from four balls to leave owe half of 
them ? How many from six balls to leave one half? 

How many balls are one half of four balls ? How 
many balls are one half of six balls ? 

What is one half of two ? "What is one half of four ? 
What is one half of six ? 

How many twos are there in four ? How many threes 
are there in six ? How many fours are there in eight ? 
How many fives in ten ? 

Here are four balls on this wire ; I wish to take one 
fourth of them away ; how many shall I move ? Here 
are eight balls ; how many must I move to take away 
one fourth of them? 

What is one fourth of four ? What is one fourth of 
eidit ? 



258 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

How many tioos are there in eight ? Plow many 
threes are there in twelve? What is one fourth of 
twelve ? 

Thirds. — Ideas of thirds may be illustrated in a man- 
ner similar to that described for fourths. Let six balls 
or other objects be arranged in groups of two each; then 
let nine objects be arranged in groups of three each, etc. 
In this manner the idea of equal 2)cirts of numbers may 
be illustrated. 

Comparative Size of Halves and Thirds, etc. — The com- 
parative size of halves and thirds^ and of thirds and 
fourths, can be readily illustrated with lines on the 
blackboard. For this purpose, draw parallel lines, as 
in the followinsj dias^ram, dividinoj one of the lines into 
two equal xjarts, or halves, and the other into three equal 
parts, or thirds : 

Halves. 

I . ' ■ I 

Thirds. 

Lead the children to notice which is larger, one half 
or one third, and request them to draw lines on their 
slates, and divide them into halves and thirds. 

Subsequently proceed in a similar manner to illus- 
trate the comparative size of thirds and fourths with 
lines divided as in the following diagram : 

Third^^. 

I , ' , ' , I 

Fourths. 

It might aid in illustrating the idea of the compara- 
tive sizes of halves and thirds, and of thirds and fourths, 



EQUAL PARTS, OR FRACTIONS. 259 

to take sticks or strings, or slips of paper of equal lengths, 
and cut one into two equal parts, one into three equal 
parts, and one into four equal parts. 

It would be well to illustrate each example by divid- 
ing lines, or strings of different lengths, to prevent the 
po'ssibility of leaving an impression that either a half 
or a third is a fixed length, like an inch. 

The object in comparing these fractions is not to 
teach their exact difference, but to early fix the fact in 
the children's minds that a half is greater than a third, 
that a third is more than a fourth, and that two thirds 
is less thii three fourths. Let them see that the more 
parts any thing is divided into, the smaller each of those 
parts must be. 

It is of much importance that these early impressions 
be correct, for they greatly influence the mind in com- 
prehending subsequent relations of numbers. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

By examining the preceding pages on Number, it wiU be seen that 
the objective system of teaching commences preliminary instruction 
with the child's own experience of number, and leads him to examine 
this property of objects in various ways. The abstract form of the 
subject is avoided until the pupils have become familiar with the va- 
rious combinations of objects upon which it is based. 

It should be borne in mind that two distinct objects ought always 
to be kept in view in elementary instruction in arithmetic— o«e to give 
the pupil skillin computation, the other to strengthen the powers of the 

mind. 

In the preceding pages on Numher the aim has been to furnish such 
suggestions as would enable the teacher readily to devise methods for 
carrying out a thorough course of instruction and mental training in 
this subject simultaneously. Nevertheless, a few words oUaution and 
additional hints may be useful here. 



260 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSOXS. 

Do not Teach the Numeral Frame. — In using tlie numeral 
frame, the teacher should remember that it is to be employed as a 
means of illustration, not as something to be taught. Therefore it 
may be understood that the same manipulations of the balls ought not 
to be gone through with day after day, when they have served their 
purpose as illustrations. Besides, the tendency in the use of the nu- 
meral frame is too great toward concert repetition. 

The main reliance for intelligent instruction must be upon individ- 
ual answers. Illustrative exercises in number may be given to the 
entire class, but di'ills for thorough training must require individual 
answers, and the attention of the entire class at the same time. 

Order of the Lessons. — Although the arrangement of the les- 
sons indicates with considerable definiteness the order Br taking up 
the successive exercises, yet a few additional hints upon this point 
seem desirable. 

When the pupils have completed the j^rs^ step in the "First Ideas 
of Number," they may continue the second step of this subject, and 
take up alternately with it t\\Q first step in "First Ideas of Figures." 
When these have been properly learned, and the third step in "First 
Ideas of Number" is taken up, the second step in " First Ideas of Fig- 
ures" may be commenced. Thus counting should be kept one step 
ahead oi figures as symbols. 

"Adding Objects" and "Adding Figures" may properly follow in 
the order of the lessons ; also "Subtracting Objects" and "Subtract- 
ing Figures." "Adding without Counting" may follow the preceding 
lessons, and should be extended over the period of learning "Numera-. 
tion and Notation" and "Addition." 

Repetition is not Learning. — It does not follow that a pupil 
is learning a table, or any other arithmetical exercise, because he is 
repeating it. Eepetitions long continued in the same form are little 
better than waste time. To learn, the mind must act ; and to secure 
its necessary action, the form of the exercise must be frequently 
changed. Most of those long-continued concert repetitions, so com- 
mon in the school-room, do more harm than good by the bad habits 
which they give the pupils, among which are paiTot-like recitations 
and sing-song tones. Good teachers will avoid bo^h. 



SIZE. 



"Let cliildren count, measure, weigh, and compare." 
LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

SIZE I^ GEJSTEEAL. 

Having provided a variety of objects of different 
sizes, lengths, widths, as large and small balls, large 
and small cubes, large and small marbles, large and 
small boxes, cups, pebbles, fruits, nuts, sticks, strings, 
pieces of cards, strips of paper, etc., the teacher may 
address the class somewhat as follows: 

To-day we will talk about the size of things. Some 
things, you know, are large, and some are small. Chil- 
dren are not all of the same size, nor of the same height. 
I have placed three boys in a row before you ; now you 
may tell me which is tallest. Which is shortest ? 

Here you may see a ball, an orange, and a marble ; 
which is largest ? "The orange." Which is smallest ? 
"The marble." 

^N'ow look at these apples, balls, and cup. Which 
is largest? "The cup." Which is smallest? "An 
apple." 

I will place on the table cubes, balls, apples, oranges, 
boxes, and the cup. l^ow let a boy come to the table 
and take two large objects. Another boy may come 
and take two small objects. 

I will hold in my hand the cup, and one girl may 



262 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

come and take up two objects that are larger than this 
cup. Another ghi may choose two objects that are 
smaller than this cup. 

Plere are several strings ; which is longer, the one in 
my right hand, or the one in my left hand? Let a child 
come and pick out the longest string. Another may 
take the shortest string. 

I have placed some strips of paper and some ribbons 
on the table. Let a little girl come and choose the 
widest ribbon. A boy may choose the widest strip of 
paper. A girl may choose the narrowest ribbon, etc. 

Here are large and small strings. Who will pick 
out the smallest string ? Who will select the largest 
string ? 

Of course it is intended that all the members of the 
class will take part in these exercises, giving answers, 
correcting the mistakes of individual pupils, etc. 

Is a dog as large as a sheep ? Which is largest, a 
dog, a sheej), or a cow ? Is a rat as large as a cat ? 
What is the smallest animal that you have seen? 
Could a horse walk through a common house-door? 

Did you ever see an elephant? Is an elephant* as 
tall as a horse? Is an elephant as long as a horse? Is 
a horse as broad as an elephant? Do you think an ele- 
phant could go through the door of this room ? 

Which will hold most milk, this tumbler or a tea- 
cup? Here is a tin cup; will it hold more than the 
tumbler ? Let us trj'- it. 

Let one child say the name of a large object, another 
of a smaller one, and another of a smaller one still, and 
so on. 

* An elephant is from ten to tweh'e feet in height, and from ten to 
fifteen feet in length. 



SIZE IN GENERAL. 263 

Let one pupil mention the name of a small animal, 
another of one a little larger, another of an animal a 
little larger than the last, another of an animal larger 
still, and so on until the largest animal has been men- 
tioned. 

At another exercise the children might commence 
with the largest, and continue to mention smaller ones 
in turn. 

Words used to signify Size. — Let the teacher write on 
the blackboard a list of words used to ex2:)ress ideas of 
size, and request the pupils to form sentences with them. 
Thus teach the pupils to use the words correctly. 
Size. 
Large. Monstrous. Small. 

Great. Enormous. Little. 

Big. Immense. Tiny. 

Vast. Plump. Fine. 

Huge. Chubby. Thin. 

The sentences formed by the pupils at this stage may 
be very simple, and somewhat as follows : 

That is a large dog ; the great door of the barn ; it 
is a big mountain ; a huge ox ; a monstrous tree ; it is 
an immense field ; he is a chubby boy ; it is a tiny flow- 
er ; the thread is fine, etc. 



264 PKIMABY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

LENGTH AND OF MEASUEE. 

First Step, Length. — To give an idea of length, the 
teacher may show the children strings, sticks, strips of 
paper, pencils, and books of different lengths, and in- 
quire which is longest, which is shortest, etc. 

Lines may be drawn on the blackboard of various 
lengths, and pupils requested to point to the longest 
line; to the shortest line; to two long lines; to two 
short lines ; to three long lines, etc. 

Holding before the class two pencils, the teacher asks, 
Which is longer? The same question may be asked 
about two books, two sticks, two strings, etc. 

Which is longer, the slate or the book ? The pencil 
or the book ? Which girl has the longest hair ? Which 
boy has the shortest hair ? 

Children should be requested to come singly and 
choose longest strings, sticks, books, pencils, etc. ; also 
the shortest of each. Then to select a stick of the same 
length as a mark on the blackboard, etc. 

The teacher may draw lines on the blackboard, then, 
holding up a stick, ask. Which is longer, the line or the 
stick ? Which is longer, this string or the line ? 

Pupils may be requested to draw a line as long as a 
stick which is shown them without measuring it ; also 
to draw lines as long as a book or a slate, etc. 

It would also be useful to request them to divide lines 
into two equal parts ; to divide sticks into two equal 
parts, etc. 



LENGTH AND MEASURE. 265 

Words used to signify Length. — The teacher may 
write on the blackboard a list of words used to signify 
length, and talk with the pupils about their use, request- 
ing them to form sentences with these words. 
Length. 
Long. Short. 

Longer. Shorter! 

Longest. Shortest. 

Lengthy. 

Second Step— Measure of Length. — The teacher, hav- 
ing provided a foot-rule, sticks, or pieces of card one, 
two, three, and six inches long ; also sticks and strings 
one, two, and three feet long, shows the children the 
length of one inch on the rule, also sticks and cards one 
inch long ; then places the tip of one forefinger against 
the first joint of the other forefinger, to show the length 
of an inch ; then the children may be requested to place 
their fingers in the same position. 

Next the teacher holds her two forefingers side by 
side, and one inch apart, and requests the children to 
do the same. 

Next the teacher may make several marks on the 
blackboard, each one inch long. 

Li a small class it would be desirable to give each 
child a strip of paper, with a request to fold it in lengths 
of one inch each. 

After the children have become familiar with this 
unit of measure, the inch, they may be trained to meas- 
ure two inches, three inches, etc., and then to judge of 
these lengths in sticks, strings, pencils, and marks. 

Holding up a stick two or three inches long, the teach- 
er may ask. How long is this stick ? When the chil- 

M 



266 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

dren have guessed, let it be measured. Thus tram the 
eye to judge of measured length until it becomes famil- 
iar, and tolerably accurate in determining the length of 
one, two, three, and six inches. 

Objects may be shown, their lengths judged and meas- 
ured ; marks drawn on the board, their lengths judged 
and measured ; and finally the children required to draw 
on their slates, or on the blackboard, lines of these sev-' 
eral lengths, as given by the teacher; thus the hand 
will be trained as well as the eye. 

Here is a book ; how many inches long is it ? " Six ; 
seven ; five." I will measure, and see who is right — 
one, two, three, four, five, six, seven; seven is right. 
James, you guessed seven ; take the rule and measure 
the next object. The girl or boy that guesses nearest 
to the correct length may be allowed to take the rule 
and test the accuracy of the guesses on the next ob- 
ject. 

How many inches long is this knife ? " Four, two, 
three, four, three." James measures and counts — " one, 
two, three, and almost another inch." Say then that it 
is nearly four inches long. " The knife is nearly four 
inches long." 

When the children have become familiar with the 
measured length of one, two, three, four, five, and six 
inches, the foot-rule should be shown, and the number 
of inches counted on it. When they have learned that 
twelve inches make one foot., this measure should be 
made the unit for ascertaining the length of sticks, 
strings, marks, etc., as before. 

Whenever practicable, the pupils should themselves 
measure as well as judge of lengths. If this can not be 
done to a sufficient extent in the school, they should be 



LENGTH AND MEASURE. 267 

encouraged to use measures at home, and thus, by expe- 
rience, become familiar with inches and feet. 

Children may amuse themselves in this way for hours 
by guessing at lengths and distances, and then measur- 
ing them to ascertain how nearly they had guessed. 
While the amusement is profitable to the child, the 
most valuable feature of this exercise is that it trains 
the eye and the judgment in determining length and 
distances. 

During the exercises on measured length, the " Chart 
of Lines and Measures" will be of service, as it contains 
an inch and foot measure. 



268 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

WIDTH AND OF THICKNESS. 

Width. — The teacher should provide wide and narrow 
ribbon, wide and narrow x^ieces of paper and of cloth. 
Let some of each be held before the pupils, and they be 
requested to tell which is widest, which is narrowest. 

Pupils may be called upon to select a piece of ribbon 
of the same width as the piece of paper shown them, 
then to select a piece of cloth of the same width as the 
ribbon. 

Broad marks and narrow ones may be made on the 
blackboard, and the children required to decide which 
are widest, which narrowest. 

Parallel lines may be drawn on the board an inch 
apart, two inches apart, and three inches apart, and the 
children required to tell which have the widest spaces 
between them, which the narrowest spaces. 

Show them narrow books and wide books, and re- 
quire them to exercise their observation in determin- 
ing which are widest and which narrowest. 

Here is a slate, a book, and a ruler; which is the 
widest ? ^What can you say of the slate and this sheet 
of paper ? " They are both of the same width." 

Whicja is the widest aisle in the school-room ? Which 
is wider, the blackboard or the top of the desk ? Let 
us measure and see. "The blackboard is wider than 
the top of the desk." 

Which is wider, the school-room or the street ? 



WIDTH AND THICKNESS. 269 

Words used to signify Breadth and Width. — Let the 
teacher write on the blackboard a list of words used to 
signify breadth and width^ and teach the pupils to use 
them correctly in sentences. 

Breadth and Width. 

Broad. Wide. Narrow. Slim. ISTeck. 

Broader. Wider. ISTarrower. Slender. 

Broadest. Widest. Narrowest. Diameter. 

Thickness. — To develop ideas of thickness, the teacher 
should 23i'ovide a variety of articles, as tissue paper, the 
thinnest and thickest writing paper, cards, window glass, 
pasteboard, binder's board, a piece of clapboard, a piece 
of flooring, and a piece of plank ; also pieces of gauze, 
thin muslin, silk, linen, sail-cloth, sacking, and of carj^et; 
wafers, buttons, and different coins. 

The teacher may show these objects, two or three at 
a time, and request the children to tell which are thick 
and which thin. They may also be required to select 
objects that are thinner than Avindow glass, then those 
that are thicker than window glass. 

After a variety of exercises with these objects, select- 
ing the thin and the thick ones of each class, and exer- 
cises in comparing one thing with another, as thick and 
thin books, the paper with the pasteboard, the wafer 
with the silk, the carpet with the gauze, etc., talk with 
them about the thickness of other objects, as thick and 
thin bread and butter, thick and thin cake and j^ie, thick 
and thin shoes, and coats, and hats. 

Words which signify Thickness. 
Thick. Thicker. Thickest. 

Thin. Thinner. Thinnest. 



270 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

HEIGHT AND OF DEPTH. 

Height. — When children have become familiar with 
the idea of length and thickness, they may be taught 
the meaning of the term height. 

Let short and tall children be placed side by side in 
front of the class, and the other ^^vipils required to tell 
which is tallest, which is shortest. The seat of the 
chair may be compared with the height of the table, 
the back of the chair with the table. 

Let the pointer stand on the floor by the side of the 
table, and the pupils decide which is higher. 

The children may be told that we use the word height 
when we mean the length or distance from the floor or 
ground upward. We may speak of the height of a boy, 
a man, a horse, a house, a tree, a hill, a mountain, etc. 

Is the shade-tree as high as the house? Did you ever 
see a tree as high as the church steeple ? 

Words used to signify Height. — The teacher may 
write on the blackboard a list of words used to ex- 
jDress ideas of height — distance above the surface — and 
the pupils may form sentences with them. 
Height. 

High. Tall. Elevated. Top. Low. 

Higher. Taller. Lofty. Apex. Short. 

Highest. Tallest. Towering. 

Aloft. Pinnacle. 

Summit. 



HEIGHT AND DEPTH. 271 

Depth. — The teacher may tell the children that, when 
we speak of distance below the surface of the ground, we 
say depths and height for distance above the ground. 
And we may also say depth when we mean distance 
below the toj), inside, as the depth of a cup, the depth 
of a pail, of a barrel. 

Which is deeper, the cup or the tumbler? 

c 

Words used to signify Depth. — A list of words whicli 
express ideas of depth, distance below the surface, may 
be written on the blackboard. 
Dep>th. 

Deep. Shallow. 

Deeper. Shallower. 

Deepest. Shallowest. 

Fathom. Shoal. 

Illustrations of the i^roper Use of these words should 
be given by the teacher, and afterward the pupils re- 
quired to use them in short sentences, as. The well is 
deep ; the stream is shallow ; the pail is deeper than 
the cup ; this is the shallowest dish ; there is slioal 
water near the bank of the river; I can not fathom the 
ocean. 



272 PRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS TO SHOW THE NECESSITY OF 
STAIS^DAKD MEASUEE. 

First Step— Measure of Length. — One of you may go 
to the table and bring to me a long stnng ; another 
may bring a long sfick ; another a short stick, and an- 
other a short string. 

Now let me compare this long stick and the long 
string. What is the result ? " The string is much 
longer than the stick." Now we will compare the 
short string and the short stick. What do you ob- 
serve ? " The stick is longer than the string." 

Now suppose your mother or your sister wanted 
some ribbon for her bonnet, and she should go to the 
store and ask for a long piece of ribbon ; the store- 
keeper Avould not know how much to give her. 

You see, what one of you called a long string was a 
great deal longer than a stick which another called a 
long stick ; and what one of you called a short stick 
was a great deal longer than the string which another 
called a short string. 

If I should tell you to give me a thick board, you 
might hand me this piece of flooring when I wanted 
the plank ; or if I wanted a thick piece of cloth, you 
might give me a piece of sail-cloth or carpet when I 
only wanted a piece of linen or of broadcloth. 

Suppose you should ask for a thick piece of bread 
and butter, and Bridget should cut it as thick as this 
plank, you would tell her that you did not want it so 
thick: you wanted a thinner piece; then she might cut 
it almost as thin as the knife-blade. 



STANDARD MEASURE. 273 

After such examples, or similar ones, and the use of 
other familiar illustrations, the teacher may readily 
show the necessity for a fixed standard of measure- 
ment, to determine how long a long object is, or how 
short a short one is. 

I presume that you now understand the importance 
of learning to measure the length of objects by inches, 
feet, and yards. Short lengths we measure by inches 
and feet, and tell how many feet and inches long they 
are; but longer distances we measure with rods and 
miles ; but when we measure cloth and ribbon we 
use a yard-stick, and tell how many yards long they 
are. 

Now if you should go to the store to buy ribbon, you 
would ask for some number of yards. If you wanted to 
buy boards, you would tell how many inches thick you 
wanted them, and how many feet long. Every store- 
keeper has a yard measure, and when any one asks him 
for a piece of cloth three yards long, he knows just how 
much to give. 

The teacher might assist the children to fix in their 
minds the idea of the standard length for an inch, a 
foot, and a yard, by drawing lines on the blackboard 
an inch, a foot, and a yard long, side by side. Also 
by drawing similar lines on the floor. 

By a few illustrations, the children may be shown 
that they can determine the width of ribbons by inch- 
es; also that with these same measures length, breadth, 
height, and depth are measured. 

Second Step— Measure of Capacity.— The teacher may 
give similar exercises, and thus illustrate the necessity 
for standard measures of capacity as well as length. In 
M 2 



2V4 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

these exercises the necessity of measures for milk, mo- 
lasses, etc., may be shown. 

This jDlan may be pursued and similar illustrations 
given with gill and quart cups, and quart and peck 
measures, to explain liquid and dry measures, and show 
that we also have .standards for these. Water and sand 
are usually so abundant that there can be no lack of 
materials, especially in a school located in the country. 
A few cups and measures might be borrowed for the 
purpose. 

During all these lessons the eye and the hand of the 
pupil should be exercised as much as possible ; the eye 
in observing length, width, and dimension of objects, 
and the hand in representing and handling what the 
eye has perceived. Care should be taken not to tell 
children any thing that they readily may be led to see 
or ascertain for themselves from objects, illustrations, 
and questions. 



DISTANCE AND MEASURED DISTANCE. 275 



LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

DISTANCE AND OF MEASUEED DIS- 
TANCE. 

First Step— Relative Distance. — Which is nearer to 
me, the door or the window ? The door or the stove ? 
The chair or the table ? The blackboard or the table ? 
Which pupil is nearest to me ? Which pupil is farthest 
from me ? 

Which of you resides nearest to the school ? Who 
has the greatest distance to come? Does James reside 
as near to the school as Henry ? Which boy has the 
longest walk to reach home from school? Which is 
nearer to the school-house, the store or the grocery? 
Which would be the longer walk, from here to the 
church or to the post-office ? 

Lucy, whose house is nearest to the one where you 
reside ? George, can you tell me which is nearer to 
your house, the drug-store or the shoemaker's ? Mary, 
what streets must you cross to go from your home 
to the grocery ? Which is farther, the bridge or Mr. 
Smith's orchard? 

A great number of similar questions should be asked, 
until the idea of relative distance seems to be clearly 
understood by every child. 

Words used to signify Distance.— The following list 
of words may be placed on the blackboard, and the 
pupils led by conversations to perceive how ideas of 
distance are expressed by their use. 



276 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Distance. 
Far; afar; off; far away; afar off; yonder; a long 
way off; a great way off. Near ; nigh ; at hand ; be- 
side; alongside. 

Second Step— Measured Distance. — You told me the 
other day that some of these objects in the school-room 
were near to me, and some of them farther away; that 
some of you live near the school, and some farther away. 
Now I w^ant to talk with you about a way to find out 
how near and how far these objects are from me and 
from each other. How did you find the length of the 
sticks and strings ? " By measuring them." Very 
good ; now can you tell me how. we may find the dis- 
tance from this chair to the door? "By measuring it." 

I will make two marks on the blackboard, and you 
may tell me how to find the distance from one mark to 
the other. "Measure it." I will take this foot-rule to 
measure the distance, and you may count the number 
of feet. "One, two." What, then, is the distance from 
one of these marks to the other? "Two feet." 

Now I will measure the distance from the table to 
the door, and you may count. " One, two, three, four, 
five, six, seven, eight." What is the distance from the 
table to the door ? " Eight feet." 

Similar exercises may be given, and a variety of dis- 
tances measured, until the pupils are familiar Avith such 
distances as may be illustrated in the school-room. 

Third Step— Measured Distance.— When the children 
have become familiar with such short distances as 
would be described in feet, they may be taught the 
yard as a new unit of measure, and then taught to 



MEASURED DISTANCE. 277 

measure distances by the yard in the school-room, and, 
when practicable, in the yard or street also. For meas- 
uring with this unit, a yard-stick or tape measure one 
yard long should be used. 

Distances in the field or in the street may be meas- 
ured with the yard-stick, and these may be extended 
as far as a hundred yards. The exercise of guessing at 
any given distance, in yards, should be practiced, and 
the accuracy of the guess determined by measurement. 
It is lohat the child does that it learns to know. 

How to measure a Quarter of a Mile. — Give two boys 
a string ten yards long. One takes hold of an end of 
the string, and walks along the sidewalk or in the street, 
or wherever they are to measure the distance assigned 
them, until the string is drawn out to its full length, 
while the other boy stands still at the place where the 
measurement is to commence. 

The boy who takes the lead carries eleven sticks and 
four pebbles. When he has carried his end of the string 
to its entire length, he drops a stick on the walk, or 
thrusts it into the ground at the end of the string, then 
proceeds as before. As the boy who follows comes to 
the stick, he holds his end of the string at that point 
until the leader has drawn it straight again and deposit- 
ed another stick. The second boy now picks up the 
stick and goes forward to the place of the next, and pro- 
ceeds as before. 

When the following boy has picked up eleven sticks 
in this manner, he exchanges them Vith his leader for 
a pebble, and they proceed again as before. When the 
following boy has exchanged his sticks four times, and 
obtained four pebbles, they will have measured forty- 



278 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

four lengths of their string, or four hundred and forty 
yards, which is a quarter of a mile. 

The same process may be continued until half a mile 
or a mile has been measured. If more than a quarter 
of a mile is measured, the boys should be instructed to 
j^lace some mark to indicate the quarters, half a mile, 
and the mile. In the same manner they may be re- 
quired to measure the distance around a block in a city, 
or to some neighbor's, if in the country. 

Subsequently pupils may be sent oiit singly to walk 
a quarter of a mile and back, or half a mile, or even a 
mile. By experiences such as the foregoing, children 
may learn to know what a mile signifies. 

FOURTH STEP.— TABLES OF LENGTH AND CAPACITY. 

When the j^upils have been led to observe carefully 
the size and length of various objects, and have learned 
the units of measure by experience, they will be pre- 
pared to learn the tables of Cloth Measure, Long Meas- 
ure, Liquid Measure, and Dry Measure. 

To teach the table of cloth measure, let the children 
be made familiar with inches and a foot. Next shoAV 
them a tape measure, or string, or stick one yard in 
length, and let them measure it, and see that it is just 
three feet long. Now write on the blackboard the 

Table of Cloth Measure. 
12 inches make one foot. 

3 feet * " " yard. 
86 inches " " " 
18 " " one half yard. 

9 " " one quarter yard. 



MEASURED DISTANCE. 279 

When the pupils have learned this table, let them 
write it on their slates from memory; also question 
them concerning it. 

In one yard how many feet ? If you should buy a 
yard of ribbon, how many feet long should it be ? 

In two yards ho\Y many feet? How many feet are 
there in four yards ? 

How many inches in a yard ? How many inches in 
half of a yard ? 

How many inches in a quarter of a yard ? 

How many inches in three quarters of a yard ? 

How many quarters make one yard ? 

How many quarters in two yards ? 

Which is longer, nine inches or a quarter of a yard ? 

Which had you rather have, a piece of ribbon 36 
inches long, or a piece three feet long ? 

Write on the blackboard the 

Table of Long Measure. 
' 12 inches make one foot. 



3 feet 


u 


u 


yard. 


16i " 


u 


a 


rod. 


5^ yards 


u 


u 


(( 


40 rods 


a 


a 


furlong. 


8 furlongs 


a 


a 


mile. 


320 rods 


ii. 


u 


(( 



When the pupils have learned this table so as to re- 
peat it readily in order, they may write it on their slates 
from memory. Subsequently question them concern- 
ing it until they know it thoroughly. 

What does it take to make one foot ? 

How many inches in three feet ? 



280 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

"What is the length of a yard? How many feet in 
four yards ? 

How many feet make one rod ? 

Which is longer, 5^ yards or 16j feet? 

If you had one string that was one rod long, another 
5^ yards long, and another 16 J feet long, which string 
would be longest ? 

What does it take to make a furlong ? How many 
furlongs in 80 rods ? 

What does it take to make a mile ? 

Whicli is longer, 8 furlongs or 320 rods? 

When do we use these measures ? 

Write on the blackboard the 

Table of Liquid Measure. 
4 gills make one pint. 
2 pints " " quart. 
4 quarts " " gallon. 
Barrels vary much in size ; they usually hold from 30 
to 40 gallons each. 

Let the pupils learn to repeat this table, and to w^rite 
it from memory : 

How many gills in two pints ? In one pint of milk 
how many gills ? In one quart of water how many 
pints ? How many pints in four quarts ? What does 
it take to make one gallon ? How many quarts in five 
gallons ? If you had eight quarts of water in one pail, 
and two gallons in another pail, how many gallons 
would there be in both pails ? 

How many gallons in twelve quarts ? What articles 
do we measure by gallons, quarts, pints ? etc. 

Write on the blackboard the 



MEASURE. 



281 



Table of Dry Measure. 
2 pints make one quart. 
2 quarts " " small measure. 
8 " " " peck. 



4 pecks 



bushel. 



When this table has been memorized, and the pupils 
can tell what articles are measured by it, they may be 
reviewed in this table as in the others. 

Grouping Words representing Kinds of Size. — An in- 
teresting and profitable exercise may b*e had in the use 
of words which represent various ideas of size, under 
the terms lengthy breadth, thickness, height, depth, and 
capacity. These words may be given by the pupils, 
and written on the blackboard in groups, to indicate 
the terms under which they may be classified, as below. 
Two or three exercises should be had with each group, 
that the several pupils may have an opportunity of giv- 
ing words which represent the term. 



Length. 


Breadth. 




Thickness. 


Long. 


Broad. 




Thick. 


Short. 


Wide. 




Thin. 


Inch. 


Width. 




Slender. 


Foot. 


Narrow. 




Slim. 


Yard, etc. 


Contracted. 


Fine. 




Ample. 




Slight. 


might. 


Depth. 


Capacity. 


High. 


Deep. 


Gill. 


Pint. 


Low. 


Shallow. 


Quart. 


Gallon. 


Tall. 


Shoal. 


Peck. 


Bushel. 


Short. 


Depression. 


Barrel. 


Hogshead. 



DRAWING. 



" Doing can only be learned by doing ; drawing by drawing ; writ- 
ing by writing ; painting by painting." — Comeneus. 



The ability to use the pencil or the pen, so that with 
a few strokes of either one can represent to the eye that 
which he can hot describe, is an acquisition the value 
of which is too well known to need any commendation 
here ; but that children may be trained to acquire this 
ability at school is not so generally understood. 

It is believed by the ablest educators that children 
will learn to write in less time, if they are taught draw- 
ing and writing at the same time, than when taught 
writing alone. It was a saying of the great Swiss edu- 
cator, Pestalozzi, that " without drawing there can be 
no writing." 

The use of the slate and pencil should not be post- 
poned for a single day after the child has entered the 
primary school ; indeed, the use of it might be learned 
long before the child is sent to school at all. 

The practice of drawing on slates should be inter- 
spersed with the exercises of the primary school, not 
only as a means of supplying an interesting variety to 
the school employments of the pupils, but as the most 
valuable mode of training the eye in accuracy of com- 
paring, and the hand in skill of representing objects. 
Care should be taken that tl\ese exercises do not come 
to be recrarded as tasks. 



DRAWING. 283 



HOW DRAWING MAY BE COMMENCED. 

It is not intended to give a series of drawing lessons 
here, but simply to suggest how teachers may take in- 
troductory steps in preparing their pupils for a system- 
atic course of instruction in this important subject. 
Many valuable aids have been published in the form of 
Charts and Drawing Cards,^ to assist in acquiring this 
useful attainment, which will supply a series of appro- 
priate lessons. 

First Step.— The teacher may make dots on the black- 
board, in rows of three each, and request the pupils to 
copy them on their slates, thus : 



* Harper's School and Family Slate, with Cards. Also Protessor 
Louis Bail's Draiving Charts,. 



284 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



When the pupils have acquired skill in making dots 
in rows, and arranging them in groups of various forms, 
they may be shown how to connect them by straight 
lines, and subsequently by curved lines, and thus to 
form a variety of figures. 

Second Step. — During this step the pupils may be 
taught to divide lines into two equal parts; then into 
three equal parts ; then into four equal parts, etc. 

They may also be trained to draw lines in various 
positions, as horizontal^ vertical^ ohlique^ parallel^ etc. 



Third Step. — The teacher may request the pupils to 
draw two straight lines in as many positions as they can 
place them. That the children may readily understand 
this request, draw two lines upon the blackboard in the 
following positions : 




Drawing two Straight Lines. 

At first only a few of these positions should be shown, 
just enough to make the pupils understand what is de- 
sired of them ; then they should be encouraged to dis- 
cover other positions for themselves. Occasionally add 
a new group to those shown at first. When the chil- 
dren have become familiar with, and can readily repre- 
sent the several positions in which two lines may be 
placed, give them an exercise with three lines. 



DRAWING. 



285 




Drawing three Straight Lines. 

When the pupils have become familiar with drawing 
three straight lines in groups of various forms, proceed 
to give them exercises in drawing figures with four 
lines. 



\ 


— 




w 


N 


M 







r 


-1 


^ 


\ 


1 


XX 







Drawing four Straight Lines. 



After a suitable amount of practice with four straight 
lines, give examples with jlve lines. 







Drawing five Straight Lines. 

By thus introducing an additional number of lines 
from time to time, the lessons may be continued to an 
almost indefinite extent ; yet care should be taken not 
to go so far as to confuse the learner. In each lesson, 
such figures should be drawn upon the blackboard as 
will be most likely to suggest other forms to the pupils. 



286 



PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Fourth step. — When the lui^Dils have had sufficient 
practice to enable them to draw simple figures with 
straight lines, lessons in drawing forms with curved 
lines may be given. These exercises should be simple 
at first, and lead the pupils to draw more difficult fig- 
ures as they acquire skill in using the pencil. Among 
other forms, the following illustrations of drawing curved 
lines, and curved and straight lines combined, might be 
2jiven on the blackboard for the children to imitate : 




Drawing Curved Lines. 





a 




"^ r^ 



straight and Curved Lines. 

Exercises with these lines combined will readily sug- 
gest a very great variety of forms. Of course, the 
teacher will vary the mode of presenting an exercise 
whenever the interest m it flags, and endeavor to make 
it both a means of amusement and development. 

It would be well if the pupils could learn to use the 
chalk and blackboard during these elementary drawing 
exercises. 

By the time the pupils have gone through with the 
preceding steps, they will have attained a sufficient 
command of the hand in the use of the pencil, and so 
trained the eye in distinguishing different forms and 
positions of objects and lines, and measuring distances, 
as to be prepared for taking a systematic course of 
drawins: lessons. 



WJUITING. 287 



WEITITTG. 



It is not necessary to say any thing on the import- 
ance of attention to the subject of writing^ since it is 
universally acknowledged to he an indispensable ac- 
quirement in education. But it is appropriate, in this 
relation, to suggest. that early attention be given to 
printing words on slates and on the blackboard; that 
this work be commenced when the child takes its first 
ste'ps in learning words and letters, and continued 
through the time of reading in the Primer. Let this 
practice be followed with simple lessons in learning to 
write : first the small letters in the order of their sim- 
plicity; then simple words; then capitals; then sen- 
tences. These steps should be taken first in writing 
on slates, afterward in writing with pen upon paper. 
By the time the pupil is able to read in a Third Reader, 
he should be able to write his name and the day of the 
month plainly ; also simple words in sentences. 

This subject of writing is so amply presented in va- 
rious series of writing-books that it is not necessary to 
give farther suggestions here relative to the methods 
to be pursued in teaching it. 



TIME. 



"Still on it creeps, 
Each little moment at another's heels, 
Till hours, days, years, and ages are made up 
Of such small parts as these. " 

LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

TIME AND MEASUEE OF TIME. 

First Step.— To give children an idea of the shorter 
divisions of time, as a second and a minute, the teacher 
may lead them in counting sixty at the rate of one 
count to each second, thus making sixty counts to a 
minute. To ascertain the proper rate, let the counting 
be done Avhile observing the time that it takes the sec- 
ond-hand of a watch or clock to move once around its 
dial. At first trial the counting would probably be too 
rapid; but, after observing the movement of the second- 
hand for two or three revolutions, and counting sixty 
at each revolution, a very good standard for the second 
will be had, and also a standard for a minute. After 
the class have learned to count at the rate of sixty to a 
minute, single pupils may be requested to try counting 
at this rate. 

When, by this means, a good idea of the length of 
one minute has been obtained, let the pupils count sixty 
five times, and thus attain an idea of five minutes. 

If the teacher has neither clock nor watch to assist 
in measuring a minute, she might place one finger on 



MEASUEE OF TIME. 289 

the pulse at the wrist, and count seventy-five pulsations 
for a minute. This will furnish a fair standard for a 
minute, since during childhood, in health, the pulsations 
range from eighty to eighty-five, and during adult age 
from seventy to seventy-five each minute. 

Second Step— Time Table. — The children may be told 
that sixty seco7ids make one minute^ and that sixty min- 
utes make one hour. 

To ascertain how well they remember the length of 
one minute, request all the pupils to close their eyes at 
a given signal, and keep them closed one minute, then 
to open them. Observe which pu^Dils open their eyes 
too soon, which keep them closed too long. 

Encourage the pupils to observe how many minutes 
it takes them to walk to school or to walk home. 

Let various similar exercises be devised for training 
the children to observe and measure time. Subsequent- 
ly teach them the table of 

Time Measure. 
60 seconds make one minute. 



60 minutes 




(.i 


hour. 


24 hours 




u 


day. 


7 days 




(( 


week. 


or 31 " 




u 


month. 


12 months 




a 


year. 


52 weeks 




u 


year. 


365 days 




u 


year. 



Teach the pupils to answer correctly questions simi- 
lar to the following : 

How many hours in a day ? 

How many hours do you spend in school each day ? 

isr 



290 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

How many days in a week ? 

How many days do you go to school each week ? 

What time does school commence ? What time does 
school close in the afternoon ? 

Repeat the names of the days of the w^eek. 

Which is the first day of the week ? 

Which is the first school day ? 

Which is the last day of the week ? 

Which is the last school day ? 

Repeat the names of the months of the year. 

Which is the first month ? Which is the last month ? 

Repeat the names of the seasons. 

Which months form the winter season ? 

Which months form the spring season ? 

Which months are called summer ? 

Which months are called autumn ? 

When do flowers appear, and. trees put on leaves ? 

When do grains ripen ? 

When do fruits, such as apples, j)ears, and peaches, 
get ripe? 

When do we have snow and ice ? 

How old are you ? 

How many summers have you seen ? 

How many winters have you seen ? 



SOUND. 

IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE EAR. 

The organs of sense are the gateways by which knowl- 
edge must enter the mind ; but if these gateways are 
only partially opened, or encumbered and blocked up, 
knowledge must come through them with difficulty, and 
often become much distorted by the passage * 

The ear is one of the avenues through which the mind 
gains knowledge of the external world. By means of 
the sense of hearing, we recognize the voices of our 
friends, enjoy the sweet strains of music, distinguish the 
sounds made by animals, and become acquainted with 
many of the phenomena of nature. The correctness of 
our knowledge of each and all of these things must nec- 
essarily depend greatly upon the condition of the or- 
gans through which this knowledge reaches the mind. 

A child that is deaf does not learn to talk, because it 
can not hear. It may have all the organs of speech per- 
fectly formed, but it can not learn how to use them be- 
cause it has no knowledge of sound. So may defective 
speech result from defective hearing. It is impossible 
to teach a child to become a good reader until it has 
been trained to discriminate readily, and imitate, with 
a good degree of accuracy, the various sounds of the 
human voice. 

Many persons hear musical sounds who take no pleas- 
ure in them simply because they have never been led 
to observe that harmony which gives pleasure through 
* Human Culture, by Garvey. 



292 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

the sense of hearing with sufficient attention to enable 
them to SLY^-pYeciate it. 

Defects of hearing may be essentially remedied by 
suitable exercises for training the ear in distinguishing 
sounds with acuteness and accuracy. When the ear 
has been thus taught to hear properly, the voice can 
readily be trained in habits of clear and distinct enun- 
ciation. 

The importance of early attention to training the ear 
in an accurate knowledge of sounds is not sufficiently 
appreciated by most teachers and parents. In endow- 
ing us with the sense of hearing, God gave with it the 
ability to derive pleasure from its exercise ; but, like all 
our powers, it needs its appropriate culture to enable us 
to enjoy the sweetest pleasures which might flow from 
it. 

Since so much of our knowledge of nature and the 
world, so much of our happiness, and so much of our 
usefulness in life depends upon the proper cultivation 
of the sense of hearing, it is deserving of the early and 
careful attention of all who have any thing to do with 
training children. 



DISTINGUISHING SOUNDS. 293 



EXERCISES FOR 

DISTINGUISHING SOUNDS. 

The following exercises are intended for training chil- 
dren to perceive sounds that are alike, and those that 
are unlike, and thus lead them to distinguish sounds 
with acuteness. 

First Exercise. — The teacher may provide a large and 
small bell, a whistle, glass tumbler, tin cup, slate, key, 
pencil, etc. Let the children see what objects are struck, 
*nd notice the sound of each. After striking lightly 
various objects, as the table, blackboard, chair, stove- 
pipe, bell, tumbler, cup, etc., two or three times, request 
the pupils to close their eyes, and then tell by its sound 
what object is struck. 

Change the position of some of the objects before 
striking them, and let the pupils discover the change 
from sound alone. 

Call four or five pupils in front of the class, and let 
each read figures or spell words from the blackboard, 
wdiile the eyes of the other members of the class are 
closed ; and request the class to tell which pupil read 
by the sound of its voice. 

Second Exercise. — The teacher may make sounds of 
the vowels, and request the pupils to tell which are alike 
and which unlike, thus: c7, a ; a, a; o, 6 ; d, 6 ; a, a ; 
d, a ; %l ; ^, ^, etc. When the pupils can distinguish 
these sounds, let them make each in imitation of the 
teacher ; but do not teach them as sounds of letters. . 



294 PRIMABY OBJECT LESSONS. 



EXERCISES FOR 

COMPAEING AND CLASSIFYHSTG SOUNDS. 

FIRST STEP. 

Rapping and Rubbing Sounds. — Lead the children to 
observe and compare sounds made by rappmg with 
those produced by riibhing. This may be done by 
gently striking on the table, chair, blackboard, slate, 
book, etc., with a pencil, ruler, pointer, or other object, 
and then rubbing, instead of striking, the same objects. 

When the pupils are able to distinguish these sounds 
with their eyes closed, let them classify the sounds by 
saying, as each is produced, "Rapping sound," or "Rub- 
bing sovmd," as the case may be. 

Ringing and Tinkling Sounds. — To illustrate these 
sounds, and lead the pupils to compare and classify 
them, the teacher should provide a very small bell and 
a common hand-bell ; also glass tumblers, some pieces 
of metal, and other sonorous objects. After producing 
several ringing sounds in succession, then several tink- 
ling sounds in succession, let the same sounds be again 
produced behind a screen, or while the children's eyes 
are closed, and let the pupils tell, as each sound is made, 
whether it is a ringing or a tinkling sound. 

The pupils may also be requested to mention objects 
that have a ringing sound, and those that have a tink- 
ling sound. 

Whistling and Hissing Sounds. — The pupils may be led 
to compare and classify ichistling and hissing sounds, 



COMPARING AND CLASSIFYING SOUNDS. 295 

and to make each. They may then mention various ob- 
jects that can be made to produce the whistling sound ; 
also those that give a hissing sound. 

Talking, Singing, and Whispering Sounds may be com- 
pared and classified, and each kind made by the pupils. 

In a manner similar to that indicated in the foregoing 
exercises, the pupils may be trained to observe and clas- 
sify a great variety of sounds. 



SECOND STEP. 

Having given the pupils several lessons in comparing 
and classifying various sounds which may be produced 
in the class-room, the teacher may proceed to lead them 
to classify familiar sounds which may be heard away 
from school. 

First Exercise. — During the first exercise in group- 
ing sounds that have been heard elsewhere than in the 
school, the various sounds made by an animal may be 
grouped together, as, 

Sounds made by Dogs. — Barking, growling, whining, 
howling. 

Sounds made by Cats. — Mewing, purring, spitting. 

Sounds made by Fowls. — Crowing, cackling, clucking. 

Second Exercise. — The pupils may next be led to clas- 
sify sounds that they have heard under the various heads 
of whining sou7ids, squealing sounds^ bleating, grunting^ 
harhing, etc. 

They may be taught to classify sounds that are loud. 



296 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

confused, and continuous, as roaring ; those that are low, 
heavy, and continuous, as rumhling ; those that are low, 
indistinct, like running water, as murmuring; those that 
are loud and rapid, as if many things were falling and 
breaking at once, as crashing; those that are small, ab- 
rupt, and repeated rapidly, as crackling ; those that are 
small, indistinct, and of quick succession, like the rub- 
bing of silk, as rustling. 



THIRD STEP. 

Classifying Sounds as Long and Short. — By pronoun- 
cing several of the vowels, as a, o, with prolonged 
sounds, then with very short sounds, the teacher may 
readily lead the children to observe a difference in the 
length of sounds. Experiments may be made by utter- 
ing various sounds with the voice; also by striking a 
bell, a tumbler, a slate, the table, etc., until the pupils 
readily distinguish long from short sounds. Then let 
the pupils be trained to produce long and short sounds 
with the vowels ; also by singing la. 

Classifying Sounds as Loud and Soft. — By using the 
vowels, lead the children to observe that sounds may 
be loud or soft. When they can readily distinguish 
this quality in sounds, train them to utter loud and soft 
sounds by using Za, la ; also other elementary sounds. 

Classifying Sounds as High and Low. — The teacher 
may readily train the children to distinguish high from 
loio sounds by uttering the syllables la la first high, 
then low; also by using the several vowel sounds. After- 
ward let the pupils be taught to sing high and low notes. 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 297 



HOW TO TEACH THE 

SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 

When children have had sufficient training in exer- 
cising their sense of hearing to enable them readily to 
distinguish such qualities of sounds as have been pre- 
sented in the preceding lessons, they can easily be 
taught the elementary sounds of language ; and thus 
the training of the ear may be successfully continued, 
and the organs of speech be cultivated at the same 
time. 



FIRST STEP. 

Distinguishing Sounds of Speech. — With children that 
have not yet learned to read short sentences of familiar 
words, the first step should be to train the ear to distin- 
guish sounds of speech readily. This may be done by 
the teacher making each sound several times, and then 
requiring the children to imitate it. 

During this step nothing should be said about vowels 
or consonants^ nor about the number of sounds that any 
letter has. As the object of this step is to train the 
organs of hearing in acuteness and accuracy, the sounds 
may be taken up without regard to the order of the let- 
ters in the alphabet ; also without regard to the num- 
ber of scTunds given to any letter. 

While the pupils are learning to read words at sight 
that are familiar to the ear, and to know them as names 
of objects or signs of ideas, they may be led to notice 
N2 





m 








298 


PRIMARY 


OBJECT LESSONS. 




which words have similar 


sounds, and to 


group t 


together, as : 










Cat. 


Cake. 




Ball. 


Cart. 


Rat. 


Rake. 




Hall. 


Park. 


Mat. 


Slate. 




Call. 


Mark. 


Hat. 


Day. 




Saw. 


Barn. 


Old. 


Box. 




Bee. 


Net. 


Cold. 


•Fox. 




See. 


Men. 


Stove. 


Lot. 




Me. 


Ten. 


Ice. 


Tin. 




Blue. 


Sun. 


Line. 


Wind. 




Tune. 


Cup. 


Fine. 


Li. 




Cube. 


Run. 



When a list of words of similar sound have been thus 
arranged in a group, let the class pronounce each word 
in the group, and then repeat the prominent vowel 
sound, thus: Cat, rat, mat, hat — a, a, ci^ a ; cake, rake, 
slate, day — a, a^ f7, a; old, cold, stove — o, <5, o, etc. 

By this exercise the pupils will be prepared to dis- 
tinguish the different sounds of the vowels when the 
lessons for that purpose are presented, and then they 
will soon learn to make all the sounds of each vowel. 

At any time after the children have learned to dis- 
tinguish some of the vocal sounds, the teacher may give 
consonant sounds, beginning with the simplest ones first, 
as m, n^ l^ s, t,f, V, Jc, etc., and request the pupils to imi- 
tate them. Thus let the order of procedure be, 

Mi'st. Train the pupils to distinguish sounds of speech. 

/Second. Train them to make the sounds. ^ 

During this stage it is not desirable that these sounds 
be taught as sounds of letters. Indeed,! believe it would 
be much better to have the exercises of this step conduct- 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 299 

ed solely for the purpose of training the pupils to distin- 
guish and Tnake the separate sounds of speech, without 
any attempt at associating them with the letters that 
are used to represent these sounds in written language. 



SECOND STEP. 

Distinguishing Sounds of Words. — At this stage the 
pupils will be prepared to commence analyzing the 
sounds of spoken words. The first words selected for 
this exercise should be short, and contain only simj^le 
sounds, as tne, see, man^ cat, cake, saw, lot, stone, tin, ice, 
sun, face, snow, etc. Let it be distinctly remembered 
that no attention is to be given to the silent letters, nor 
to any letters, during this step. Only the sounds of the 
words as s2^oJcen are to be distinguished and made sep- 
arately. 

To train the pupils in this work, let the teacher pro- 
nounce a short word very distinctly, then make each 
of its sounds separately, and next require the pupils to 
imitate her, thus: Me, m-e, me. Man, m-d-n, man, 
Saio, s-a, saio. Stone, s-t-o-n, stone. 

This exercise should be commenced while the chil- 
dren are learning to read words at sight, as signs of fa- 
miliar spoken words. 



THIRD STEP. 

Associating Sounds with Letters. — If the pupils have 
been properly trained in the preceding steps, they will 
now have acquired some knowledge of sounds as the 
elements of spoken words, and be prepared to learn 
which letters represent these several sounds. Although 



300 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

it is common to commence with the vowel sounds, yet 
there is no good reason why the teacher may not begin 
this stej) with some of the simple consonants. 

M. — The word me may be printed on the blackboard, 
and the pupils taught to pronounce it distinctly. Then 
they may be requested to say me^ and to commence 
speaking it again, but keep the lips closed, so that the 
sound of e can not be made. The pupils may be told 
that the sound which is made in beginning to say me is 
the sound of m. Then let the pupils make the m sound 
three times. To furnish more practice in making this 
sound, place the following words and letters on the 
blackboard, thus : 

Aim m m m make. 
Let the pupils pronounce the word aim, prolonging the 
m sound ; then make the sound of m three times, and 
pronounce the word make. 

N. — Print the word no on the blackboard, and let the 
pupils pronounce it distinctly several times. Then let 
them say no, and commence speaking it again, but keep 
the tongue pressed against the roof of the mouth, so 
that the sound of o can not escape. For practice in 
making this sound, print the following on the black- 
board : 

Fan n n n nap; 
and require the children to repeat it in the same man- 
ner as the sound of m was given above. To make the 
sound of w, the lips and teeth must be slightly open, the 
top of the tongue pressed against the roof of the mouth, 
and the sound caused to pass through the nose. 

L. — To make the sound of /, place the lips, teeth, and 
tongue in the same position as for n^ except that the 
edges of the tongue are slightly turned downward, so 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 301 

as to allow the sound to pass out of the mouth. For 
practice the foUowmg may be placed on the black- 
board : 

Sail 1 1 1 lake. 
F. — To make the sound of /, place the upper teeth 
upon the lower lip, and force breath through smoothly. 
The following may be written on the blackboard for 
practice : 

If f f f fin. 

V. — To make the sound of v, place the teeth and lips 
in the same position as for/, and force sound through 
instead of breath. For practice, write on the black- 
board, 

Five V V V vine. 
S. — To learn the sound of 5, say see several times dis- 
tinctly ; then commence saying it, but omit the sound 
of e. For practice, write on the blackboard. 
Gas s s s see. 
Z. — To make the sound of s, place the teeth and tongue 
in the same position as for sounding s, but force voice 
through instead of breath. Say buzz several times. 
Freeze z z z zeal. 
T. — To learn the sound of ^, say at several times, pro- 
nouncing the t very distinctly. Press the tip of the 
tongue against the roots of the front upper teeth, and 
force breath through between the tongue and teeth sud- 
denly. For practice, write the following on the black- 
board, 

.Mat t t t tan. 
K. — To learn the sound of h, say Jack several times 
distinctly, observing with what sound the word ends. 
For practice, write on the blackboard, 

k k k keep. 



302 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

P. — To make the sound ofp, press the lips together 
lightly, and force them apart with breath. 
Lip P P P pill- 

B. — To learn the sound of b, say bee several times dis- 
tinctly, then attempt to say it without separating the 
lips. 

Cab b b b bad. 
D. — To learn the sound of d, say do three times dis- 
tinctly ; then attempt to say it again without sounding 
the 0, 

Lid d d d did. 
G. — To learn the sound of g, say go three times, then 
attempt to say it without sounding the o. 
Beg g g g get. 
J. — To learn the sound of J, which is the same as the 
soft sound of g, say edge several times, observing the 
last sound in the word. 

Age j j j Jane. 
R. — To learn the sound of r, say fear several times, 
taking care to sound the 7\ 

Near r r r rear. 
H. — To make the sound of A, open the mouth and 
eject the breath forcibly. 

h h h hat. 
To teach a pupil to pronounce the name of the letter 
h properly, require him to repeat the long sound of d 
several times, following it with the sound of cA, thus : 

d,d ch,ch/ d eh/ d — cAy d-ch/ dch. 

W. — To produce the sound of w, place the lips in the 
position for sounding oo in moon, or o in do; then con- 
tract the lips slightly as the sound of oo begins. The 
sound of to can not be prolonged. 

w wall w wish. 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 303 

Y. — To produce the sound of y, commence the sound 
of e as in me, but contract the sound by bringing the 
tongue and palate nearer together. 

y ye y yes. 

Ch. — To make the sound of c/i, press the tongue light- 
ly against the roof of the mouth and expel the breath 
forcibly ; or say rich several times, observing the last 
sound in the word. For practice, write on the black- 
board, 

Each ch ch ch cheat. 

Sh. — To learn the sound of sA, say hush several times, 
observing the last sound in the word. For practice, 
write and repeat, 

Sash sh sh sh shall. 

Th. — To make the whispered or sharp sound of th^ 
place the tip of the tongue between the teeth and force 
the breath out gently. Say teeth several times, observ- 
ing the last sound of the word. For practice, write on 
the blackboard and repeat, 

Both th th th thin. 

Request the pupils to say ^'' Thirty-three thousand 
things f ^' Think thirty thoughts.'''' 

Those who lisp substitute this sound of th for the 
sound of s. This fault of speech may be corrected by 
training children to make the sounds of s and th separ- 
ately, and then to give the th sound in the words where 
they improperly use that of 5. 

Th. — The vocal or hard sound of th may be produced 
by placing the tip of the tongue in the same position as 
for the sharp th^ and forcing voice out instead of breath. 
Lead the children to notice the sensation of the tongue 
when this sound is made. They will say, " It makes 
the tongue tingle." Let the pupils pronounce ^Ais, ^Aat, 



304 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

^Aese, making the th emj)liatic. For practice, Avrite and 
repeat, 

Smooth th th th these. 

Zh. — To make the sound of a;A, j^lace the tongue in 
the same position as for sA, and force voice out instead 
of breath. These two letters do not occur together, 
but the sound is heard in azure^ vision^ glazier. 

Ng. — To learn the sound of oig, repeat the words 
hring^ ring^ string^ making the sound of ng emphatic. 
Require the pupils to pronounce distinctly the follow- 
ing words, sing-ing^ hring-ing^ ring-mg. For practice, 
write on the blackboard, 

Hang ng ng ng gang. 

Wh. — To learn the sound of ich, jDronounce the words 
where^ when^ lohich^ making the sound of wh emphatic. 
For practice, write on the blackboard. 

Where wh wh wh when. 

Qu. — Q has no sound of its own. Qit represent the 
sounds of kw, as in qiieen^ kween ; quite^ kwite. 

X. — Jl has no sound of its own. It represents the 
sounds of ks in tax and excel, and the sounds of gz in 
exist, exalt, and sh in anxious. 

C. — C may be said to have no sound of its own. It 
borrows or represents the sound of k in cat, cup, cold ; 
and the sound of 5 in cent, rice, face ; and the sound of 
z in sice, discern, sacrifice. 

Gh represent the sound of/" in laugh, rough, cough, 
etc. 

Ph represent the sound of/ in phonic, sylph. 

When the pupils have become familiar with the 
sounds represented by the letters and combinations 
already given, they will be able to determine which 
letters represent each consonant sound in any word. 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 



305 



The Sounds of A. 



1. 

Ale. 
Fame. 
Late. 
Plait. 
La. 
a. 



2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


At. 


Arm. 


All. 


Air. 


Fan. 


Far. 


Form. 


Fare. 


Lad. 


Lark. 


Law. 


Lair. 


Plaid. 


Part. 


Pause. 


Pair. 


La. 


La. 


La. 


La. 


a. 


a. 


a. 


a. 



6. 
Ask. 
Fast. 
Last. 
Pass. 
La. 
a. 



To learn the several sounds of «, commence with the 
first column, and repeat each word, ending with the 
long sound of a ; then rej^eat this sound of a several 
times. Next repeat the words in the second column, 
ending with the short sound of a ; then repeat this 
sound several times. Next repeat the words of ih^ first 
and second columns alternately; then the sounds of 
each alternately several times. Next repeat the words 
of the third column, ending with the Italian sound of «/ 
then repeat this sound several times. Next repeat the 
words of the three columns in this order : Ale, at, arm ; 
fame, fan, far, etc., ending with a, a, a. 

Proceed in the same manner with each of the remain- 
ing sounds. Practice in this way until the pupils can 
readily give any sound of a that may be called for sep- 
arately, as the first sound of a; the third sound of a; 
the second ; the fourth ; the sixth, etc. The same plan* 
may be pursued for teaching all the vowel sounds. 

* " The Phonic Charts, for Self-training in the Sounds of Lan- 
guage^ by N. A. Calkins," were prepared for teaching the sounds in 
accordance with the plans described in these pages. Even those who 
are not familiar with the sounds can learn them from these Charts so 
as to teach successfully. These Charts are published by Harper and 
Brothers, and may be sent by mail. 



306 



PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Sounds of E. | 


Sounds of I. 


1. 


2. 


1. 


2. 


Eve. 


End. 


Ice. 


In. 


Meet. 


Met. 


Fine. 


Fin. 


Seal. 


Said. 


Buy. 


B^Sld. 


Le. 


Le. 


LI. 


Ll 


e. 


e. 


i. 


1 


Sounds of 0. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Bone. 


Box. 


Boot. 


Broth 


Cold. 


Cot. 


Cool. 


Cost. 


Sew. 


Swan. 


Soup. 


Song. 


Lo. 


Lo. 


Lo. 


Lo. 


0. 


6. 


o. 


o. 



In the Dictionary, the o in words like dog, cost, song, 
is marked the same as o in not ; and. yet we are told 
by the same authority that to give the extreme short 
sound of o in not to these words is affectation ; and that 
to give them the full broad sound of a in all, or o in 
form, is vulgar. Then why not give a special sound 
for this o f 





Sounds of U. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Blue. 


But. 


Bush. 


Burn. 


Cube. 


Cub. 


Could. 


Cur. 


Feud. 


Flood. 


Foot. 


Firm. 


Suit. 


Sun. 


Shook. 


Serve. 


View. 


Wont. 


Wolf. 


Work. 


Lu. 


Lu. 


Lu. 


\A, 


u. 


\\. 


u. 


<i. 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 



307 



It is not cl|imed that the sound of ii in cur^ i in firm, 
e in serve, and o in work, are in all respects identical, 
yet the sound of each of these vowels is so nearly the 
same that, for the purposes of elementary training in 
the sounds of language, they may be treated as having 
the same sound. 

The different vowel sounds are herein distinguished 
by numbers, as this is found the most convenient mode 
in teaching. 

Double Vocal Sounds, or Diphthongs. 



Boil. 


Boy. 


Sound. 


Cow. 


Coin. 


Cloy. 


• Out. 


Owl. 


oi. 


oy- 


ou. 


ow. 




rOURT] 


a STEP. 





Analysis of Words by Sounds. — Having learned the 
vowel and consonant sounds, the pupils may now be 
trained in their farther application to speech by being 
requested to make the several sounds in given words, 
or analyze them, as the teacher pronounces them. The 
pupil should pronounce the word after the teacher, then 
give distinctly each sound contained in it, and pro- 
nounce the word ascain. 



Mate, 


m a t, 


mate. 


Care, 


h d r, 


care. 


Pail, 


p d I, 


pail. 


Pair, 


p d r, 


pan-. 


Mat, 


m a t^ 


mat. 


Last, 


last, 


last. 


Plaid, 


p I ad, 


plaid. 


Chance, 


ch a n s, 


chance 


Far, 


far, 


far. 


Seat, 


s e t, 


seat. 


Fall, 


fa I. 


fall. 


Seize, 


s e z, 


sme. 


Form, 


far m, 


form. 


Men, 


m S n, 


m^n. 


Bought, 


hat. 


\i6ught. 


Head, 


h S d, 


h^ad. 



!08 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Guess, 


9 


S s, 


guSss. 


Long, 


^ i^^' 


long. 


Dime, 


d 


I 7)1, 


dime. 


Gone, 


gov, 


gone. 


Heiglit, 


h 


I t, 


height. 


Lute, 


I ut, ■ 


lute. 


Sing, 


s 


I ng, 


s?ng. 


Suit, 


s u t. 


suit. 


Sieve, 


s 


I V, 


Sieve. 


Sun, 


s u n, 


sun. 


Note, 


n 


t, 


note. 


Does, 


d Hz, 


does. 


Four, 


f 


r, 


four. 


Full, 


■f u I, 


Ml. 


Not, 


n 


t, 


not. 


Wolf, 


wolf. 


wolf. 


What, 


luh 6 t, 


v/liot. 


Burn, 


h ur n, 


bw?-n. 


Moon, 


m 


o n, 


moon. 


Verge, 


V ur j, 


verge. 


Group, 


9 


r o p, 


growp. 


Mirth, 


m ur til. 


m??'th, 



Describing the Sounds. — Mrst Form. — The most sim- 
ple description should include the number and oiame of 
the vowel soimd, also the number of sounds in the given 
word, the number of letters in it, and which are silent, 
thus : Come, k 'tt ;??, come ; o has the second sound o?u. 
This word has three soimds and foicr letters / e is silent. 

Second For^n. — Pupils that are so far advanced as to 
read in a Second Reader may give a description similar 
to the following, thus : Late, I a t^ lute ; I has its own 
sound ; a has its first sound ; t has its own sound ; e is 
silent. School, s 7c g /, school ; s has its own sound ; 
ch has the sound of ^-y o has its third sound; Hias its 
own sound. Though, th o, though; th has its vocal 
sound ; ough the first sound of o, or (the pupil may say) 
o has its first sound ; gh are silent. Know, n o, know ; 
7c is silent ; oi has its own sound ; oio the first sound of o. 

T7iird Form. — Pupils that read in a Third or Fourth 
Reader may be taught to describe and name the sounds 
of letters somewhat as follows, viz. : Sauce, s a s, sauce; 
s has its own sound — it is an as2:)irate ; au has the fourth 
sound of a — it is a vocal ; 9 has the sound of s — it is an 
aspirate; e is silent. Sphere, sfer, sphere; s has its 
own sound — it is an aspirate ; p7i has the sound off— 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 309 

it is an aspirate ; e has its first sound — it is a vocal ; r 
has its own sound — it is a sub-vocal; e is silent. Mouth, 
m ou th^ mouth; m has its own sound — it is a sub-vocal; 
ou has its own sound — it is a vocal; th has its sharp 
sound — it is an aspirate. 

How the Sounds are made. 

The Vocal Organs. — The vocal chords of the larynx, 
the lips^ teeth^ tongue^ palate^ and glottis., are usually in- 
cluded in the list of vocal organs. 

Vocal Sounds are made by the passage of breath over 
the vocal chords, causing them to vibrate. These vocal 
sounds are modified by the position of the lips, teeth, 
tongue, and palate, and thus made to represent the sev- 
eral vowel sounds. 

The Sub-vocals are made by slight vocal sounds, more 
effectively modified by the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate. 

The Aspirates are made by breath which passes out 
without acting upon the vocal chords. This breath is 
also modified by the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, and glot- 
tis, so as to represent the several aspirate sounds. 

Letters formed chiefly by particular Organs. — In order 
that the attention of pupils may be directed to those 
organs which are most essential in the formation of 
given consonant sounds, the following classification are 
made on the charts : 

JLip Letters — 5, m, p, and w. To form the sounds of 
these letters, chief attention should be given to the po- 
sition of the lips. 

Lip and Teeth Letters— f v, p)h. To form these 
sounds, attention should be given to the lips and teeth. 

Tongue and Teeth Letters — c, c?, /, ?^, 5, if, 2, th. To 



310 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

form the sounds of these letters, attention should be 
given to the position of the tongue and teeth. 

Tongue and Palate Letters — g^ J, r, 2/, ng^ ch^ sh^ zh. 
To form these sounds, attention should be given to the 
position of the tongue atid palate. 

Glottis Letter — h — is formed by forcing breath 
through the open glottis, and allowing it to pass out 
of the mouth without modification by other organs. 

Palate^ Tongue^ and Teeth Letter — x — commences 
with the sound of k, and ends with s. 

Palate^ Tongue^ and Lip Letter — q^ or qu — commences 
with the sound of Jc^ and ends with that of w. 

Other Classifications and Names. — Various other clas- 
sifications are made, and other names used to distin- 
guish the sounds of letters, as Vowels^ Semi-vowels^ Con- 
sonants^ Diphthongs. 

Some authors use the name Tonics for vowels, or vo- 
cals ; Suh-tonics for semi-vowels, or sub-vocals ; Atonies 
for aspirates. 

Letters are sometimes described as Labials when 
chiefly formed by the lips ; as Linguals^ when chiefly 
formed by the tongue; as Palatals^ when chiefly formed 
by the palate ; as Nasals., when sounded through the 
nose ; as Sibilants^ when made by a hissing sound, as s 
and z. 

Cognates are letters formed by the same organs, as/* 
and V ; t and d ; p and 5, etc. 

Mutes are letters formed by a complete closure of the 
organs, and an entire interruption of the sound. 

Sonants are letters uttered with the voice, as vocals 
and sub-vocals. 

Surds are letters uttered with simple breath. 



SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 311 

Simplest Classification Best. — For the practical pur- 
poses of teaching the Elementary Sounds, as few divis- 
W71S should be made in the classifications as is possible 
loith clearness. Experience has shown that the classes 
of sounds known as Vocals, Sub-vocals, and Aspirates 
are easily taught and remembered. 

An attempt to teach the pupils of a Primary or a 
Common School all the distinctions, names, and classi- 
fications sometimes given, or even all that are men- 
tioned here, would lead to confusion rather than knowl- 
edge. Besides, such information would be of little or 
no practical value. 

The important work of the teacher in relation to 
Phonetics is, 

1st. To train the orga^is of hearing to distinguish 
readily and accurately the different sounds of language. 

2d. To train the organs of speech to produce these 
sounds loith ease and accuracy. 

These two points should receive the teacher's special 
attention. They can not be attained by teaching chil- 
dren names and classifications to be recited about the 
sounds and letters. It can only be accomplished by 
exercises for the organs of hearing and the organs of 
speech, to give them greater power. 

Vocal Training— how to be used. — The teacher should 
by no means regard the vocal power imparted to the 
children by this phonetic training as the end of the 
work. This power should be daily applied to the cor- 
rection of faults of enunciation and pronunciation in 
reading and conversation. This should be attended to 
constantly until the habit of distinct and correct pro- 
nunciation is securely formed. 



312 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



SUGGESTIONS FOU TEACHERS. 

The idea has ah*eac!y been stated that the ^rs^ step to be taken in 
teaching the elementary sounds of language consists in training the ear 
to distinguish these sounds, and the second step in training the organs 
of speech to make them. The chief value of elementary sounds in Pri- 
mary Education can be realized only by proper attention to these two 
steps. Whatever else may be learned about these sounds, their num- 
ber, etc., can be only of secondary importance. Their training power 
upon the ear and the organs of speech should be the principal object 
of attention by the teacher. 

In order that this idea may be most readily attended to during the 
instruction given in this subject, the number of sounds for each letter 
has been reduced to the lowest practicable limit for successful teaching. 

Instead of saying that A has seven sounds, only six are given here ; 
the seventh, that of a in ivhat, is said to represent the second sound of 
0, as in not. 

Instead of giving ^ye sounds of ^, only two are given here ; the e in 
there represents i\\Q fifth sound of a; the e in they represents the first 
sound of a; the e in serve represents the fourth sound ofw. 

Instead of giving /owr sounds of/, only two are given here ; the i in 
pique represents i\\Q first sound of e; the i in 6iVc? represents the fourth 
sound of u. 

Instead of saying that has six sounds, owly four are given here ; 
the in son represents the second sound of m; the o mfor represents 
the, fourth sound of a. 

Instead of saying that C has three sounds, it is represented as bor- 
rowing the sound of h in cat, the sound of s in cent, and the sound of 
z in suffice. 

Sounds of other letters are treated in the same manner. 

In analyzing words, it is very important to give the separated sounds, 
so that, as a whole, they shall i-esemble the sounds of the spoken word. 
This is especially desirable in that class of words commencing with w 
and 3/, as waste, wall, was, wet, wind; yam, yes, young. 

Instead of making the sound oiw, then of a, then of s, then of t, each 
separately, the sounds of w and the following vowel may be joined to- 
gether by prolonging the w sound somewhat, thus : w-d s t, waste ; 
w-6 z, was ; lo-S t, wet ; y-a m, yam ; y-e s, yes, etc. 



PRIMARY READING. 

SOME OF THE METHODS USED IN TEACHING. 
The art of reading intelligently is one of the most 
difficult of human attainments. To examine the un- 
philosophical methods, and the arbitrary processes com- 
monly employed in teaching children the first lessons 
in reading, would soon remove all astonishment at the 
slow progress made, and leave no cause for surprise that 
so many children find this threshold of knowledge un- 
attractive. Some of these methods are old, long, un- 
natural, and tedious, afibrding little else than monotony 
to gratify the child's willingness to learn. Others may 
be shorter, but none the less unnatural and arbitrary. 
That teachers may readily distinguish good methods 
from poor ones, descriptions will be given of some of 
the plans employed for the first lessons in reading. 



THE A, B, C METHOD. 

This old, long, and tedious way consists in teaching 
first the names of each of the twenty-six letters^ then in 
combining these into unmeaning syllables of" two let- 
ters," " three letters," and finally into words of " two 
syllables" and " three syllables." Very little regard is 
had to the meaning of the words. Indeed, it seems as 
if those who attempt to teach reading by this method 
suppose that the chief object should be to make their 
pupils fluent in oral spelling; and it ends in spelling 
usually, since children thus taught go on spelling out 

O 



314 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

their words through all the reading lessons, and seldom 
become intelligent readers. They give their attention 
to the loords instead of the ideas intended to be repre- 
sented by them. 

When the child has succeeded in learning the names 
of the twenty-six letters, he has gained no knowledge 
of their real use as representatives of sounds, and, con- 
sequently, little ability in determining how to pronounce 
a new word from naming its letters. Besides, the names 
of the letters constantly mislead him when formed into 
words. He may have made the acquaintance of each 
of the twenty-six individual letters so as to recognize 
their faces and be able to call them by name singly, but 
when these same letters change places with their fel- 
lows, as they are grouped into different words, he is fre- 
quently unable to address many of them in a j^roper 
manner, or to determine Vv^hat duties they perform in 
their different places. 

Again, the words that are learned by naming over the 
letters which compose them seldom represent any ideas 
to the young learner ; indeed, too many of the words 
learned by this method are only meaningless monosyl- 
lables. The children begin to read without understand- 
ing what they read, and thus is laid the foundation for 
the mechanical, unintelligible reading which character- 
izes most of that heard in schools where the A, B, C 
method is used. 

This plan is in violation of fundamental laws of teach- 
ing ; it attempts to compel the child to do two things 
at the same time, and to do both in an unnatural man- 
ner, viz., to learn reading and spelling simultaneously, 
and reading through spelling. Reading has to deal 
with sounds and si(/ns of thoughts. Spelling rests on a 



PRIMAEY READING. 315 

habit of the eye, which is best acquired as the result of 
reading. In attempting to teach reading through spell- 
ing, the effort of the pupil in trying to find out the word 
by naming the letters that compose it, distracts the at- 
tention from the thought intended to be represented by 
it ; the mind becomes chiefly absorbed with spelling in- 
stead of reading. When properly taught, reading fur- 
nishes natural facilities for teaching spelling ; but spell- 
ing does not furnish a suitable means for teaching read- 
ing. 

Thus it will be seen that the usual plans for teaching 
reading by the A, B, C method compel children to do 
that for which their minds are not fitted, and thus cause 
a loss of power by restraining them from attending to 
the thoughts represented by the words, and to other 
things, which would greatly promote their development. 
The results are — a love for reading is not enkindled ; 
good readers are not produced. The few cases in which 
the results are different owe both the love for reading 
and the ability in this art to other causes ; the pupils 
learned to love reading, and became able to read well 
in spite of poor teaching during their first lessons. 
There is consolation in believing that this method, which 
produced so many halting, stumbling readers, is now 
abandoned by all good teachers of reading. May the 
number of such teachers be greatly increased. 



THE PHONIC METHOD. 

The " Phonic Method" has many forms of representa- 
tion. Yet, in all the modes of using it, its prominent 
features consist chiefly in first teaching the- pupils 
sounds of letters in place of their names, and then in 



316 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

requiring the children to use these sounds in learning 
to read. 

To read the word maw, the pupils would be taught 
to make the sound of m, then the short sound of a, then 
the sound of w, and to pronounce it ma7i. But in the 
use of this method the child-soon encounters difficulties, 
and finds these sounds uncertain guides in determin- 
ing what to call the word. 

After being taught the sounds of the letters in the 
word cap, the word cape appears, and the child is told 
that in this word a has a different sound. Then he 
meets the word oar, and finds that a has still another 
sound. At length he encounters the word call^ and is 
told that the same character has yet another sound. 
Perhaps he finds the word care^ and becomes more 
astonished on hearing that a has a fifth sound. 

The pupil also learns the sound of e in me, and of e 
in men^ and of e in her^ and he soon is told that e has 
no sound in time. Thus it appears that many obstacles 
attend learning to read by the Phonic Method, as well 
as by the A B C Method. 

Attempts have been made to systematize this method 
by classifying the sounds, and teaching first words con- 
taining only short vowel sounds, as hat^mat^cat^hen^pen., 
pin, tin, hot, lot, hut, cup. Having spent several months 
in learning this class of monosyllables, the pupils are 
next introduced to words containing the long sounds 
of the vowels, as cajoe, hate, hee, me, find, piyie, hope, 
told, tube, rude. Subsequently words beginning alike, 
as blind, block; broion, breio ; clip, clog ; drop, dry ; 
gnat, gnaio / knee, knob / plug, plum y smut, smack ; 
twill, twang, are arranged in groups or classes. After- 
ward those containing similar silent letters are present- 



PEIMAEY READING. 317 

ed, as ligh% night ; plague, vague; edge, wedge; scent, 
scene. 

It will be readily seen that, with these classifications 
of words having similar sounds, an attempt is made to 
lead the pupils, to master the difficulties of our language 
through a plan that reverses the natural order by treat- 
ing the real office of the printed word — that of represent- 
ing thought — as of secondary importance, and directing 
the child's attention first and chiefly to sounds of letters, 
which constitute no element of the thought represented. 
Although some success has attended this plan, yet it is 
accompanied with so much complexity as to prove in- 
adequate as a successful means of teaching reading. 

So long as a single sign is made to represent from one 
to six sounds, and the same sounds are frequently rep- 
resented by different signs, and the same signs often 
have no sound at all, it will continue to remain a dif- 
ficult task to teach reading in our language by the 
sounds of letters alone. Yet for teaching languages 
like the German and Spanish, whose phonic structure 
is regular, this method would be most appropriate. 
Those who advocate it on the ground that it is suc- 
cessfully used in Germany do not give due considera- 
tion to the difference in phonic structure between our 
language and the German. 

But the chief defects of the Phonic Method for teach- 
ing our language lie in its unnatural and unphilosophical 
system. The natural way for a child to learn language 
is to begin with the units of language, which are words. 
Language deals with thoughts ; words are symbols of 
thoughts. Neither letters nor sounds are elements of 
thought. Letters are elements of the /orms of words; 
simple sounds are the elements of the sou9ids of words; 



318 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

neither of these elements are units in language. The 
true starting-point for reading must be with the thought 
and its sign as a whole. Subsequently the sign may be 
analyzed, and the elements of both its sounds im^ forms 
learned. 

To teach a child the sound of a single letter, then of 
another, and afterward to unite them into a compound 
sound or word, is no more natural in its relation to the 
child's mind, nor to the thoughts represented, than to 
teach it the names of two letters singly, and then to 
unite them together, and call the product a word. 

Sounds of letters, when properly classified, furnish a 
most valuable aid in teaching reading, after the pupils 
have made some progress in learning printed words as 
the signs of familiar spoken words. This process, how- 
ever, is not adapted to the child until it has learned 
some words as wholes, as units of language, and as rep- 
resentatives of thoughts. 

Mechanical and artificial methods of teaching may be 
employed with apparent success, as systems of mnemon- 
ics are sometimes made to appear valuable as aids to 
memory, but careful observation and experience will 
prove that they possess little or no genuine merit. 

PHONOTYPIC METHOD. 

The "Phonotypic Method" is another form of the 
Phonic Method, yet it differs from that in its applica- 
tion, since it provides a character or letter for each 
sound in the language. The pupil is required to learn 
forty or more letters in place of twenty-six. As each of 
these phonetic letters always stands for the same sound, 
it avoids the difficulty of using the same letter to rep- 
resent several sounds. 



PRIMARY READING. 319 

The desire of many who advocate this system is to 
have all our books ultimately printed in these charac- 
ters ; but this scheme is generally regarded as vision- 
ary. In the relations of the Phonotypic Method to 
teaching the first reading lessons, it has been consider- 
ed by some as a valuable aid. The plan of using it is 
to introduce the child to these characters at once on its 
entering school, and teach it to read by the use of books 
printed with phonotypic letters. The reading lessons 
are confined to these books until the pupils can read 
fluently in them; afterward they are taught reading 
from books in the common letters. It has been claimed 
that pupils would learn both methods, and become able 
to read better thereby, in a given time, than they usu- 
ally do when taught entirely from the common print. 

The Phonotypic Method is liable to some of the ob- 
jections that are urged against the Phonic Method, 
and it also has more serious faults. The forms of the 
words and their spelling are materially changed, and, 
in consequence of this fact, its use in reading is gener- 
ally regarded as a hinderance rather than an aid in learn- 
ing to spell the words of our language in accordance 
with the common orthography. Besides, it does not re- 
move the irregularities of our language by its tempo- 
rary use in learning to read. It only furnishes a means 
by which the difficulties to be surmounted in reading 
are delayed for a time. Its practical value, therefore, 
may be justly questioned as a means for teaching read- 
ing. It attempts such radical changes in the formation 
of the words of our language that it fails to commend 
itself to teachers or the people as a means of learning to 
read. 



320 



PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LEIGH'S PHONETIC METHOD, OR 

PRONOUNCING ORTHOGRAPHY. 

The Phonetic Method recently produced by Dr. Edwin 
Leigh seems to possess fewer objections than any other 
Phonetic system that has been devised for teaching chil- 
dren to read and spell our language as now printed. It 
provides signs to represent all the sounds of the lan- 
guage, using the common letters each to denote but 
one sound (the most frequent one) of that letter, and 
providing slight modifications of these letters to de- 
note the other sounds. Thus the various sounds of a 
are represented by different forms of the letter a, and 
the various sounds of o by different forms of o, and the 
same with other letters, as is shown by the following 
illustrations: 

This form of a represents its sound in cane. 



a 


a 


a ^ 


( a 


u 


a 


cap. 


u 


a 


a ' 


i u 


a 


u 


car. 


u 


a 


a ^ 


c u 


u 


u 


call. 


a 


a 


a ^ 


i u 


a 


a 


care. 


u 


a 


^ 


i u 


u 


u 


old. 


a 


u 


o ^ 


c u 


a 


a 


on. 


a 


a 


^ 


I u 


u 


u 


do. 


u 


u 


O ^ 


i a 


a 


u 


look. 


u 


u 


e ' 


i u 


u 


u 


or. 


a 


a 


e ^ 


I u 


u 


u 


me. 


a 


u 


e ^ 


I u 


a 


u 


men. 


a 


a 


s ^ 


i u 


a 


a 


see. 



PRIMARY READING. 321 

This form of s represents its sound in his. 
" " c " " " " cat. 

" " c " " " " ice. 



u ci r^ ' a u a 



" get. 



" " g " " " " gem. 

This method preserves the present forms of the words 
so far as relates to the spellmg. By makmg the silent 
letters with hair lines only, the letters that indicate the 
sounds of the word appear prominent, and, when the 
characters have been learned, the pupils can readily 
determine the pronunciation of the words. The gen- 
eral form of the words and the number of letters in 
each being the same as in the common type, both the 
word as a whole and its spelling are readily learned. 

This method is called a "Pronouncing Orthography," 
and is designed to be used as an introductory means in 
teaching children to read our common print. The pu- 
pils may first learn words printed with these letters, 
and then the sounds rej) resented by each, and then 
learn the spelling as with common print. When chil- 
dren can read through the First Reader fluently, a 
reader printed in the common type may be placed in 
their hands, and instruction continued in nearly the same 
manner as if the *' Pronouncing Orthography" had not 
been used. 



THE WORD METHOD. 

The "Word Method" begins at once with teaching 
X the words in a manner similar to that by which chil- 
dren learn to distinguish one object from another, and 
02 



322 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

learn the names. It proiDOses to teach words as the signs 
of things, acts, and qualities, etc. It does not propose 
to teach pupils the alphabet, but to leave them to learn 
this after they have become familiar with enough words 
to commence reading. 

In Europe this method is sometimes called "Reading 
without Spelling," and sometimes the " Look-and-Say" 
Method. When properly used, this plan introduces the 
learner to the meaning of the spoken word before teach- 
ing it the printed form; thus the idea is associated with 
the form which represents it. 

THE WORD-BUILDING METHOD. 

The " Word-building Method" was in limited use in 
Europe about forty years ago. The author who intro- 
duced it into this country, about fifteen years since, 
with some modifications, claims that " it unites all the 
advantages of the old system of teaching to read by 
first commencing with the alphabet, and the new and 
preferable one which begins with entire words." 

Its plan is to commence with words of one letter, as 
A, I, O, and gradually form new words by prefixing or 
afiixing single letters. The child is taught first to pro- 
nounce the word, then the letters that form it. Separ- 
ate letters of the alphabet and spelling are taught by 
asking questions similar to the following : "What letter 
is placed after a to form an f What after an to form 
and? What before and to form landP'' 

Those methods which embrace the plans most com- 
monly employed in teaching the first lessons in reading 
have now been described. There are, however, modi- 



PRIMARY READING. 323 

fications of these methods in use, each of which may- 
prove more or less successful, according to the skill of 
the teachers who employ them. 

From the descriptions of methods already given, it 
will be perceived that there is a wide difference be- 
tween the practical character of some of these plans. 
Notwithstanding so great a variety of methods is used 
for teaching reading, many children still acquire habits 
of reading in an unnatural and monotonous manner, and 
without understanding what they read, while these bad 
habits do not exist in the ordinarj^ conversation of the 
same children. Why does this difference exist between 
the tones of conversation and those of reading ? Is it 
caused by the use of unnatural methods for teaching 
reading ? 

May not this difference of manner between reading 
and conversation be due chiefly to the difference in the 
attention given to the thoughts and the icords which 
represent them ? In conversation the thoughts uttered 
receive chief attention; words are used simply as a con- 
venient means of communicating these thoughts. In 
reading, owing to the habits usually formed from the 
way in which the early lessons are taught, greater 
prominence is given to the icords than to the thoughts 
which they represent. In conversation children follow 
nature, giving thoughts the foremost place. 

In some of the methods used for teachinor reading^ 
the forms or sounds of the words are kept most promi- 
nently in view, while but little attention is given to the 
thoughts. 

In view of the great importance of having those whose 
duty it is to give instruction in the first lessons of read- 
ing understand what is the proper starting-point in this 



324 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

work, and the order of proceeding, attention is invited 
to a careful consideration of the following : 



FACTS TO BE OBSERVED IN TEACHING EEADING. 

1. Reading directly exercises the senses oi seeing and 
hearing, 

2. Sou7ids of words, i. e., the words as spoken, are 
learned by hearing only, and chiefly through their use 
in conversation. In view of this, they may be termed 
Sou7id-worcls. 

3. Forms of words, i. e., the words as printed and writ- 
ten, are learned by seeing. These may be termed Form- 
words. 

4. Words, both of sound and form, symbolize ideas. 
The ideas symbolized by sound-words are perceived 
through the ear. The ideas symbolized by the form- 
words are perceived through the eye. Words constitute 
the units in language. 

5. Sound-ioords may be separated into simple or ele- 
mentary sounds ; but these simple sounds do not sym- 
bolize ideas, nor the elements of them. 

6. Form-words may be separated into simple element- 
ary forms or letters ; but these letters do not symbol- 
ize ideas, nor the elements of ideas. 

^. V. Children learn, naturally, by proceeding from the 
hnown to that which is akin in the miknown. This is 
the true order for teaching. 

^ 8. Bound-words, as used in conversation, constitute the 
hnown to the child just commencing to learn reading. 
Form-words are the unhnovm to this beginner, and the 
kin to the sound-words, or Jcnoion. 
X 9. WJiole words are first learned in conversation. The 



PKIMAEY EEADING. 325 

wliole form of the word should be learned first in read- 
ing. The first object of the instructor should be to teach 
the children to Jcnoio hy sight the forms of those icords 
ichich are already hnoimi to the ear. 

10. Children learn the concrete before the abstract; 
the whole before its parts. Words are the wholes in the 
first lessons of reading. Their parts, or analysis into 
sou7ids and letters^ belong to a subsequent step. 

11. To secure a habit of reading with an easy, natural 
voice, the child must be trained from the first to treat 
printed words as signs of things, actions, and thoughts. 
Both t\iQ form and the soimd of the word should be as- 
sociated with the object or thought represented. Nei- 
ther a spoken word nor a printed w^ord means any thing 
to a child until it symbolizes an object or an idea which 
that child already knows. 

" Let the child's mind be filled with as many ideas as 
possible, and with spoken words to represent them. 
When a child knows the audible sound for an idea, it 
will very soon learn to recognize the visible symbol of 
the same idea without reference to the letters that form 
the word, or the sounds that the letters stand for ; and 
this is a far more effectual method of teaching it to read 
than the usual practice of making the pupil go through 
a weary synthetical process, which he is utterly incap- 
able of comprehending. The mind of the child, daily 
increasing in its knowledge of things, and in the power 
of knowing, will not long be satisfied with the general 
form of the words that stand for the names of its fa- 
vorite objects ; he will want to know about the letters. 
This spontaneous movement of inquiry indicates the 
moment at which the teaching of the elementary sounds, 
and their combinations, should begin. The value of the 



326 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

several letters is a more difficult process, and better 
suited to a more advanced state of mental culture than 
exists at the initial step of reading. 

" The rapidity with which a child may be taught to 
read by recognizing the simple form of the words at 
first is surprising, and no less surprising is the facil- 
ity and perfection with which spelling is afterward 
learned."* 



THE OBJECT METHOD. 

By the " object method" of teaching reading the at- 
tention of children is first directed to some object with 
which they are familiar by sight, name, and use. When- 
ever practicable, during the first lessons in reading, the 
object is shown, talked about, and its name spoken; 
then a picture of the object is presented, or a drawing 
of it made on the blackboard, and the pupils are led to 
notice this as 2^, picture of the object. Next the name 
\^ of it is plainly printed on the blackboard, or shown on 
a card. The pupils are now taught to distinguish the 
object^ the incture of it, and the loord from each other, 
as " the cup ; the picture of a cup ; the word cup." Sev- 
eral words may be taught in this manner before the 
sounds or the letters of the word are introduced to the 
pupils. 

By this method the words are taught as symbols of 
objects, and of their spoken names ; thus both the sound- 
word and the form-word will equally symbolize the ob- 
ject, and both possess equal power in recalling the qual- 
ities of the object to the mind. Whole words should 
be presented and learned, as above, until the children 
* Human Culture, by M. A. Garvey. 



PRIMARY READING. 327 

have become familiar with the fact that the words are 
symbols for sounds, and things, and thoughts. During 
this time the pupils should not be taught to spell, as 
their eyes have yet become accustomed only to whole 
words. Subsequently the analysis of these words into 
sounds and letters may be taught. Then the value of 
the elementary sounds and of the several letters will 
be readily understood, and a knowledge of them easily 
acquired. This analysis will be greatly facilitated by 
familiarity with the forms of the words. 

Children usually learn names of things first, and names 
of qualities and of actions afterward. Printed words 
representing the names of things should be taught first, 
as whole words, then words representing names of qual- 
ities and actions. The little words that are only joints 
and hinges in language, and those that are used as sub- 
stitutes for other words, should not be taught until they 
are needed in the formation of phrases and sentences, 
and their use can be illustrated. This plan can be easi- 
ly carried out by using the blackboard for giving these 
lessons. 



STEPS IN READING BY THE OBJECT METHOD. 

The following order should be observed in teaching 
beginners reading : 

First Step. — Teach whole words by sight, that are 
already known by hearing, as signs of objects, qualities, 
and actions. 

Second Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by its 
elementary sounds. 



328 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Third Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by the 
names of its letters, and their order in spelling it. 

Fourth Step. — ^Require the pupils to pronounce the 
loord — sound it — spell it. 

Fifth Step. — Group words into phrases and sentences. 

By observing these steps in teaching, the word as a 
whole, its sounds, and its spelling, will become intimate- 
ly associated with the object or idea represented. 

It may be asked, How will a child acquire the ability 
of learning the new words which it will find in reading ? 
By observing their resemblances, and comparing words 
known with new words. Who that has carefully watch- 
ed the operations of the child's mind in learning to read, 
does not know that the learner is constantly comparing 
the forms and sounds of words ? The association of 
sound with form, which the child makes with one word, 
it endeavors to apply to every other word where the 
resemblance in form gives an opportunity. Where a 
proper use of the elementary sounds is made, the child 
adds to its ability to learn new words with each word 
acquired. Then the teacher may greatly aid the child 
in increasing this ability by showing it how to arrange 
in groups those words which resemble each other in 
sound, and those which resemble each other in form, 
and then directing the attention carefully to the mean- 
ing, sound, form, and spelling of each. 

By this order for teaching reading — the ideafirst^ its 
^ signs second^ and the ability to represent the idea by its 
signs third — the natural order of learning language, and 
the natural order of using it, are made to correspond. 



PRIMARY READING. 329 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

That the plan of teaching children to read by the object method may 
be more clearly understood and readily applied, the following sugges- 
tions are given relative to it : 

It is of little importance what words are taught first, if they are fa- 
miliar to the children by use in conversation, and the objects which 
the words represent and their pictures can be readily shown. 

First Step— Whole Words.— What am I holding in my hand ? 
"A. cap." 

What do boys do with caps ? " Wear them." 

How many of these boys wear caps ? All who do may hold up their 
hands. 

Now look at this picture, and tell me what it is. "A cap." "A 
picture of a cap. " 

Those who think it is a real cap may hold up their hands. Now 
those who think it is the jncture of a cap may hold up their hands. 
We will call this a picture of a cap. Can you wear a picture of a 
cap ? What do I hold in my hand ? "A cap. " 

What do you see on this Chart ? "A picture of a cap." 

I will now make the tvord cap on the blackboard. After printing 
the word, using the small letters, the teacher asks. What did I say I 
Avould make ? * ' The word cap. " 

Here it is ; now I will make it again. What is this ? *'The word 
cap." 

How many words have I made ? " Two. " 

Are these words alike? What is the first word that I made ? "Cap. " 

What is the next word ? " Cap." 

What have I in my hand ? "A cap. " 

What is this on the Chart ? "The picture of a cap." 

What is this on the blackboard ? " The word cap." 

Which of them can you wear ? " The cap. " 

James may come and point to the picture of a cap. 

Henry may point to the word cap. 

When several words have been learned at sight and read from the 
blackboard, fix the attention of the children upon them again by rub- 



330 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

bing oif one word at a time quickly, and request the pupils to tell in 
each case what word was rubbed out. 

When the pupils have learned several familiar words in this way, 
such as 



cap, 


top. 


bell. 


ball, 


cake. 


mat, 


doll, 


net. 


wall. 


slate. 


hat. 


box. 


pen. 


salt, 


face. 


man, 


boy, 


sled. 


saw. 


skate, 


bag. 


shoe. 


egg, 


chalk. 


plate, 



and the pupils have become so familiar with the form of each as to 
name it at sight, as the several words are pointed out on the black- 
board, or on charts, or in a book, then proceed to take the Second 
Step. 

In reviewing the words learned in the First Step, point to a word, 
and ask what we do with the thing which it represents or stands for, 
without mentioning the word, thus : Pointing to the word cap, ask, 
What do boys do with this? "Wear it." Pointing to hag, ask. 
What do we do with this? "Put things in it." Pointing to cake, 
ask. What do we do with this? "Eat it," etc. This exercise will 
awaken much interest, and lead pupils to associate the printed words 
with the objects which they symbolize. 

Second Step — Words by Sounds. — Print on the blackboard, 
in a c<?lumn, all the words which the pupils have learned that resemble 
each other in sound, as in the columns above. Let the pupils pro- 
nounce the words in the column — cap, mat, hat, man, bag — and notice 
that one sound is heard in each. Then let them make this sound sev- 
eral times — a, a, a, «, a. 

The word mat may now be taken, and each sound in it made dis- 
tinctly by the teacher, thus : m, a, t, mat. After repeating this two or 
three times, let the pupils make the sounds in the same way, and re- 
peat them. Then take the word man, and sound its elements in the 
same Avay, thus : m, a, n, man, and require the pupils to do the same. 
Proceed in this manner to teach the pupils to make the elementary 
sounds of the several words learned by sight. 

Next let the teacher point to a word and say, Pronounce it, and the 
pupils speak it. Then the teacher, still pointing at it, may say, Sound 
it, and the pupils give the separate sounds which compose it. 



PRIMARY READING. 331 

Third Step— Words by Letters,— When the pupils have be- 
come so familiar with the words that have been taught by sight as to 
readily give their elementary sounds, proceed to teach the names of 
their letters. 

Selecting the word mat, print it on the blackboard two or three 
times ; also print each letter in it separately two or three times. 
Point to the word mat, request the pupils to pronounce it, then to 
sound it. Next tell them the name of the first letter ; show them the 
same letter in the other words and among the separate letters, and 
request the children to give its name. Proceed in the same manner 
with a and t. Then require the pupils to name each letter in order 
as it is pointed at. 

In the same way the letters of other words may be taught, until the 
alphabet is learned. Afterward the children may learn to repeat the 
letters of the alphabet in their order. 

Hoiu to secure Attention. — The attention of the entire class may 
be secured while teaching the names of the letters and spelling by 
means of various exercises which a teacher of skill will readily devise 
and use. To lead the children to observe what letters form given 
words, and the order of their arrangement, rub out or cover up a let- 
ter, and let the pupils tell what letter was rubbed out or is covered up. 
Also let the pupils tell what letters must be made to form a given 
word, and the teacher print each letter as it is named. 

Fourth Step. — Having taught a good list of familiar words in 
accordance with the three preceding steps, review them by requiring 
the pupils to pronounce them at sight, to sound them and spell them as 
the several letters are pointed at. Do not alloio the pupils to reverse 
this order, and spell the word before pronouncing it. 

From this time on each new word may be taught as a whole, then 
by its sounds, then by its letters, thus taking the three steps in succes- 
sion at each lesson. 

Fifth Step — Grouping Words. — When the pupils have learned 
a few words representing qualities and actions, they may be led to 
group them into phrases and sentences, as good boy ; good girl ; new 
hat ; new dress ; old coat ; old cap, etc. 

A dog can run ; a cat can run ; a dog can bai-k j a cat can mew. 



332 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

See my new hat. See the old horse run. 

See my old shoe. See my dog run. 

See my new ball. See my top spin. 

Place words on the blackboard so that several sentences may be 
formed by the change of one word in reading, thus r 
A dog can bark, 
bite, 
run. 
A cat can mew. 
purr. 
Point to the words, and let the pupils read them as follows, viz. : 
A dog can bark. A dog can bite. A dog can run. A cat can bite. 
A cat can rtin. A cat can mew. A cat can purr, etc. 
Then change the sentence by placing can before it, thus : 
Can a dog bark ? Can a dog bite ? Can a dog mew ? Can a cat 
bite ? Can a cat bark ? etc. 

When the pupils have become acquainted with a sufficient variety 
of words to render it practicable, arrange them in longer sentences, as, 
A dog can bark, bite, growl, whine, walk, trot, run, and jump. 
A horse can walk, trot, run, kick, draw, eat, drink, see, and hear. 
A boy can sing, talk, read, spell, study, play, run, jump, hop, spin a 
top, fly a kite, and play ball. 

A good girl will try to keep still in school, mind her teacher, iearn 
to read, spell, and count. 

Bad boys play truant, do not mind their teacher, and do not try to 
learn. 

In this manner extend the reading lessons on the blackboard, making 
them more and more difficult as the pupils progress in their acquaint- 
ance with words. 

Let the pupils give words to be printed on the blackboard and learned 
by the class. Do not be alarmed and decline to print them, even if 
they give you such words as breakfast, dinner, supper, mother, sister, 
father, brother, etc. The children can easily learn these words by the 
time they have been through the first three steps in reading, and are 
prepared to take the Fourth Step. 

Also request the pupils to tell you what to wi-ite about a horse, a 
dog, a cat, a cow, etc. Thus lead them to think about what they read, 
and to aid in making their own reading lessons. 



KEADING FROM BOOKS. 333 



EEADING FKOM BOOKS. 

HOW TO TEACH THE FIRST LESSONS. 

Many of the common faults in reading may be traced 
to the improper methods used during the first lessons 
in this subject. Bad habits formed at this period usu- 
ally cling to the pupils during all their school days, and 
often seriously affect their entire educational progress. 
Hence it is of the greatest importance that the first les- 
sons in reading should be given in a proper manner. 
To do this successfully, there must be system in the 
plans pursued. Each difficulty should be taken up sin- 
gly and mastered. 

First Step— Reading Words. — IfaJce the 2n(pils famil- 
y^ iar with the words of the lesson, so that they can readily 
pronounce them at sight. Before placing books in the 
^ hands of the children, print the words of the reading 
lesson on the blackboard in columns, and teach the chil- 
dren to pronounce them, to sound them, and spell them. 
When they can readily pronounce all the words at sight 
instantly, place the books in their hands, and require the 
class to pronounce, without spelling, all the Avords of \ 
the lesson, beginning with the last word of each para- 
graph and ending with the first, so that the story of the 
lesson may not be learned before the pupils read it for 
that purpose. 

If more practice be required, let the teacher pronounce 
the first word, the pupils the second in concert, the 
teacher the third, the pupils the fourth, and so on, al- 



334 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

ternately, through the lesson. If some of the pupils do 
not then readily know all the words, let each of those 
pronounce the words of its paragraj)h before reading, 
commencing with the last word, as above. 

Second Step— Reading Sentences. — 'ZiCt the standard 
for good reading he its resemblance to good conversa- 
tion. If the pupil does not read in such a natural man- 
ner, request it to look at the teacher and tell what it 
read. When it can do this properly, let it look on the 
book and tell it again. Thus train each pupil until the 
habit of reading in an easy, natural tone of voice, such 
as is used in a good conversational style, has become 
fixed. 

The teacher may illustrate how a sentence should be 
read by reading it correctly, thus cultivating the ears 
of the pupils in good style. A good reader in the class 
may be selected to read a given sentence or paragraph, 
and each of the other members allowed to try to read 
it as well. Train the pupils to observe when two of 
their number read alike and equally well. Thus secure 
an appreciation of good reading, and use it in training 
the class to read correctly. 

Such early training is worth more than all the rules 
of the elocutionist given at a later period of instruction. 

Third Step— Telling what has been read.— When the 
lesson has been finished, let the children tell what they 
have read. At first they may give parts of the lesson 
without any order or connection. Accept these efibrts 
at first, but ultimately train them so that the class can 
tell the story of any lesson read, in the order of the 
events narrated, by each giving a short item of it. En- 



READING FEOM BOOKS. 335 

courage them, in telling the story, to use their own 
language instead of repeating the words of the book. 
Avoid asking many questions about the lesson. Let 
the principal questions be, "What is this lessoii about ? 
What does it tell you f 

Fourth Step— Meaning of the Words. — Having finished 
ythe reading exercise, it is desirable to call the attention 
of the pupils more specially to the meaning of the words 
used in the lesson read. In doing this, do not teach 
the class to give formal definitions for simple, common 
words, as is sometimes done. Even the definitions usu- 
ally placed in columns at the beginning or end of read- 
ing lessons should not be used as the chief mode for 
teaching the meaning of the words in these lessons. 
Too often the word thus given as a definition is more 
difficult to understand than the word to be defined. 

Encourage the pupils to show that they understand 
the meaning of the words by using them in sentences, 
as Cat : a cat can mew. Coio : a cow gives milk. 

Swim: a fish can swim. Heside: I reside in . 

Careful: I must be careful with my books. Obedient : 
I am obedient when I do what my mother tells me to 
do. Attentive : I try to be attentive to my lessons. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

The following are some of the common errors to be found in the 
methods of teaching reading to beginners, viz. : 

Allowing the children to take books before they have learned the 
words of the reading lesson at sight. 

Teaching them "to mind the pauses" by requiring each child to 
stop and count "one" at a comma, "one, two" at a semicolon, and 
"one, two, three, four" at a period. Such attention to the pauses 



336 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

generally leads to a mechanical, unnatural style of reading. First 
attend to the meaning of the sentences, and lead the pupils to see how 
the pauses aid in understanding their meaning. Do not teach reading 
as if attention to commas is the chief object to be attained. Learning 
and reciting definitions of pauses is not only useless, but it leads to a 
great waste of time. Of what practical benefit is it to a child just 
learning to read to be able to say, "A comma is the shortest pause; 
stop long enough to count one." Tor all the advantage that may be 
obtained from it in reading, the child might as well say, "Tommy 
showed his paws long enough to count one." 

Teach the use of the pauses in the lesson, instead of the definition 
of them. 

Some teachers "hear their classes read," and suppose they are 
teaching them to become good readers by telling each pupil what 
mistakes were made as the paragraph is finished. Usually the errors 
are so varied and numerous that the pupils are bewildered in their ef- 
forts to remember them. They are told of "words left out;" "words 
put in;" "words mispronounced;" "reading too fast;" "reading too 
low ;" "kept the voice up at a period ;" "did not let the voice fall at 
a comma;" "did not emphasize the words;" "called and ann;" 
"did not mind the pauses," and many other "faults of omission and 
commission." Notwithstanding so much is said to the pupils about 
their blunders, they are not taught how to read any better next time. 

Do not suppose that it is necessary or desirable to have the class of 
beginners commence their lessons, in reading from books, with those 
sentences that are made up from words of two letters, as "I am up," 
" He is up," etc. If the pupils have been properly taught from the 
blackboard, it will be far better to skip all of this class of reading les- 
sons, and comnlence at once with those composed of such words as 
children use, as, 

"Ann has a new hoop. She can roll her hoop." 

" Can she roll her hoop fast ?" 

"Ann runs when she rolls her hoop fast." 

Such a lesson would be learned as quickly as those composed of 
"words of two letters," which mean nearly nothing to the pupil. 
The length of the word to be learned presents a much less difiiculty 
than a lack of familiarity with its use and meaning. Familiarity with 
the use of the words in a lesson, rather than their length, should be 



READING FEOM BOOKS. 337 

the guide in selecting an elementary reading lesson. However, pref- 
erence may properly be given at first to short words which are thus 
familiar. 

Attend to Faults singly. — When you take a class in reading 
that has been allowed to form bad habits, first ascertain what fault is 
most serious and common among the pupils. Having determined this 
point, give special attention to correcting this one error until it has 
been brought under the ready control of the pupils ; then take the next 
serious fault in order, and treat it with special attention until both the 
faults are under control. Thus remove each fault by special attention, 
and train the pupils to a complete control and avoidance of all of them. 
But it must be remembered that telling pupils of their faults in read- 
ing will not correct them. They should be shown how to correct their 
faults, and then trained so as to secure their cormction. 

To teach Reading successfully. — Train the sight to know 
words by the eye readily. 

Train the heariyig to know words by the ear distinctly and accurately. 

Train the speech to utter words correctly and fluently, and in a clear 
and pleasant tone of voice. 

Train the pupils to understand what they read, and to he able to tell 
the story, or the principal facts in the lesson. 

Spelling. — A knowledge of spelling is chiefly valuable for the 
purpose of writing. It is of little worth as a means of teaching read- 
ing. When taught exclusively from spelling, reading seldom becomes 
natural, and the pupils frequently stumble all the Avay through school, 
calling was saw, on no, and making many similar mistakes. Spell- 
ing should be learned through reading, not reading through spelling. 
Reading words naturally precedes spelling words. To teach reading 
chiefly by spelling belongs to the ABC method. 

Spelling should not be introduced until the children's eyes have be- 
come accustomed to distinguishing Xhe forms of simple words as wholes. 
Spelling deals with the elementary forms of words, not with their 
sounds as spoken. The first lessons in spelling, given while the chil- 
dren are learning to read familiar words, should be conducted by print- 
ing words on the blackboard, and taught by sight instead of hearinq. 

P 



\ 



338 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSOJfS. 

The pupils should be taught to spell by printing words on their 
slates, copying them from the blackboard at first, subsequently from 
books. So soon as they can write, let spelling be taught by writing 
words on their slates. This should be the chief mode of teaching 
spelling. However, oral spelling may be employed as a valuable means 
of teaching written spelling successfully, thus causing two senses — sight 
and hearing — to take cognizance of the elementary parts of each word, 
instead of only one, as in the common plan of teaching oral spelling. 

The plan of requiring pupils to pronounce each syllable separately 
while spelling is one of those customs which long usage has so firmly 
established that it is difficult to look upon any other mode without 
prejudice. From a long personal experience, and the results of the 
experience of others with many thousand children, I believe that, in- 
stead of its being ;in advantage to treat the several syllables as so many 
separate words, and then unite them together gradually by repeatedly 
pronouncing the previous syllables as each successive one is spelled, it 
is a positive hinderance to progress in oral spelling, and a loss of time. 
To spell perplexity thus, ^-e-r per, p-l-e-x ptlex, per-plSx, I ?, per- 
plSx-i, t-y ti, per-plSx-i-ty, seems to be a sort of" House- that- Jack- 
built" style, which may serve as an occasional amusement for children ; 
yet to continue such repetitions daily as a part of the process of spell- 
ing is a needless j^erplexity to pupils, and a great hinderance to their 
progress in learning to spell. Every requirement that diverts the at- 
tention of the pupils from the order and arrangement of the letters 
that form the word retards rather than aids in learning to spell the 
word. 

The following method has been thoroughly tested, and found to be 
entirely satisfactory for oral spelling : 

A word is pronounced by the teacher ; the pupil repeats the pronun- 
ciation distinctly, then spells it, speaking each letter plainly, and mak- 
ing a pause between each syllable ; then finishes by repronouncing the 
whole word, thus : Teacher. Commandment. 

Pupil. "Commandment; c-o-m m-a-n-d m-e-n-t, command- 
ment." Care should be taken to secure the pause between the sylla- 
lles, and the speaking of each letter distinctl3\ 



QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. 

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING THEM. 

Before children commence Lessons on Objects with 
a view to observing their several qualities and uses, it 
is desirable that they should receive special training in 
distinguishing and naming the qualities. Lessons have 
been given in the preceding pages for training children 
to perceive the shapes, colors, number, size, and sounds 
of objects, and it is important that lessons should also 
be given to aid them in distinguishing other properties. 
Besides, the plan of taking a single quality for a lesson, 
and training the pupils to discover it in a variety of 
objects, furnishes facilities for a thorough discipline of \ 
their minds, and leads to habits of classifying and asso- 
ciating like kinds of qualities and facts in accordance 
with the natural laws of mental acquisition. These les- 
sons will also lead teachers to avoid those desultory and 
unprofitable exercises which are sometimes called " Ob- 
ject Lessons." 

After having received such training, the children will 
be able to take up any object and readily distinguish 
and name its principal properties. These lessons will 
also prepare children to understand what qualities ren- 
der objects most valuable for the several uses in which 
they are employed. 

The exercises in " Home Training of the Senses," on 
pages 27 to 32 inclusive, may furnish some hints that 
will prove useful in giving these lessons on Qualities. 



340 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 

TO DISTINGUISH AND NAME THEM. 

Rough and Smooth. — To lead children to distinguish 
the qualities rough and smooth^ request them to feel of 
a slate, of writing-paper, and a piece of polished wood ; 
then to feel of sand-paper, of coarse cloth, and a piece 
of rough wood. 

Tell them that when any thing has an even surface, 
like the paper, or the slate, or window-glass, we say it 
is smooth. 

When any thing has an uneven surface^ like sand- 
paper or coarse cloth, we say it is rough. 

Also lead the pupils to notice that smooth substances 
are pleasant to thefeelmg^ that rough ones are unpleas- 
ant to tJie feeling. 

Then write on the blackboard, and require the pupils 
to read it : 

Smooth — having an even surface, pleasant to the feel- 
ing. 

Rough — having an uneveoi surface, unpleasant to the 
feeling. 

Next request the pupils to tell the names of objects 
that are smooth and rough, and the teacher may write 
them in separate columns. 

Ask the children. Why do you call these objects 
smooth ? 

" Because they have an even surface, and are pleasant 
to the feeling." 

Why do you call objects rough ? 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 341 

" Because they have an uneven surface, and are un- 
pleasant to the feeling." 

When do you say an object is smooth? 

Sticky. — To lead children to observe the quality 
sticky, provide a piece of paper with mucilage on one 
side ; also a piece of wax or putty. Show the pupils 
how these substances luill hold to any thing to which 
they may be applied. Tell them that we. call those 
things that loill hold to or stick, like wax, mucilage, 
etc., sticky. 

Request the pupils to mention the names of things 
that will stick or hold to, like soft wax, and Avrite them 
on the blackboard in a column, thus : 
Wax, 
Glue, 
Paste, 

Mucilage, I are called sticky, because they will 
Molasses, ' hold to or stick. 
Honey, 
Candy, 
Putty, 

We say any thing is sticky or adhesive that will hold 
to, or stick, or adhere. 

Why do you say glue is sticky ? 
" Because it will hold to or stick." 
Whe7i do you say any thing is adhesive ? 
" When it will stick or hold to." 

Slippery. — The pupils may be led to understand the 
quality slippery by directing their attention to the feel- 
ing qf soap when wet, of ice, of oil, etc. Ask how these 
objects feel. Some of the children may say "they feel 



342 TMMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

smooth." Tell them that any thmg that is smooth to 
the feeling and 7noves easily^ like wet soap, is called 
dixjpery. 

Ask the pupils whether it is easy to hold a piece of 
ice, or any thing covered with grease. Request them 
to mention the names of substances that are slippery, 
and write them on the blackboard, in a column, as was 
done with the names of things that are sticky. 

Why do we say a piece of wet soap is slippery ? 

" Because it is smooth to the feeling, and will move 
easily, or slip." 

When do you say any thing is slippery ? 

" When it slips, or causes any thing to move easily." 

Brittle. — To train the pupils to notice the quality brit- 
tle^ take articles that will break very easily, as chalk, 
candy, cinnamon, small sticks, and show the class that 
each of these may be easily broken. Request the pu- 
pils to mention the names of objects that will break 
easily, and write them on the blackboard, thus : 
Chalk, ] 

Candy, ! are brittle. 

Glass, They are easily broken. 

China, etc., . 
Why do you say glass is brittle ? 
" Because it is easily broken." 
Why did you say that china is brittle ? 
" Because it will break easily." 
When do you say any thing is brittle ? 

Tough. — This quality may be readily illustrated with 
articles that are not easily broken or torn^ as a piece of 
lead, copper, leather, linen cloth, etc. Require the pu- 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 343 

pils to give a list of tough articles, to be written as be- 
fore. 

Tell the pupils that we call those things tough which 
we ca7i not easily break or tear. 

Write, as the definition of tough, not easily broken or 
torn. 

Ask the usual questions relative to this quality. 

Porous. — To lead children to observe the quality ^or- 
oics, provide a sponge, a cork, a rattan, etc. Let them 
look at the sponge and tell what they see. Cut one 
end of the rattan, and let them look at it and tell what 
they see in it. When they have noticed the "little 
holes" in the rattan, in the sponge, and the cork, tell 
them that we call these little holes ^9ore5 / and we say 
any thing that is ficU of little holes is ^^oroiis. 

Request the pupils to give a list of objects that are 
full of little holes, to be written on the blackboard, thus : 
Sponge, ^ 

-Bread, \ are 2)orous. 

Cake, [ They are full of little holes or^:>ore5. 
Rattan, J 

What do we call the little holes in the end of the rat- 
tan ? " Pores." 

What do we call the little holes in the sponge and the 
cake? "Pores." 

What do we say of any thing that is full of little 
holes? " It is porous." 

Why do you say sponge is porous ? 

Is glass porous ? Is cloth porous ? Will porous things 
hold water ? Is candy porous ? 

Whe7i do you say any thing is. porous? 

What does porous mean ? " Full of little holes." 



'344 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Your skin is full of very little pores, through which 
the perspiration comes. 

Transparent. — To teach children to notice the. quality 
transparent, take a piece of glass, a cup of water, a 
tumbler, a slate, a sheet of paper, etc. Take a piece of 
chalk, hold it in one hand, and hold a piece of glass be- 
tween the chalk and the class. Ask the pupils, What 
am I holding behind the glass ? How do you know that 
it is chalk ? '' We can see it." 

But the glass is between you and the chalk ; how can 
you see the chalk ? 

" We can see through the glass." 

Very good. I will now take a slate and hold some- 
thing behind it, and you may tell what it is. But you 
must not guess. If you do not know what I have in 
my hand behind the slate, say " I do not know." 

Why can you not tell me what I am holding behind 
the slate ? 

" We can't see it." 

Why can't you see what I have now as well as you 
could when I held the chalk behind the glass ? 

"We can't see through the slate; we could see 
through the glass." 

The teacher drops a slate-pencil and a piece of chalk 
into the cup of water, and asks the children to look into 
the cup and tell what is in the water. 

"A slate-pencil and chalk?" 

You did not see me put them in the cup ; how do you 
know they are there ? 

"We can see them through the water." 

After various illustrations, and the pupils have ob- 
tained the ideas that some things can be seen through 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 345 

clearly^ and some can not he seen through^ request the 
puj)ils to mention the names of things that can be seen 
through. Write these on the blackboard : 

Glass, 



Water, 
Air, 



are transparent. 

They can be seen through clearly. 



Alcohol, 
Some ice. 

Ask the pupils, How do you know that air is trans- 
parent ? 

" We can see through it." 

Can you see the air ? 

How do you know that some oil is transparent ? 

Why do you say water is transparent ? 

When do you say any thing fs transparent ? 

Is thin cloth transparent ? 

Do we say any thing is transparent when we look 
through holes in it ? 

We may also say any thing is transparent when light 
and color pass through it freely. 

Why is glass so useful for windows ? 

Why is mica used in stove doors ? 

It might be well to explain that some things are part- 
ly trayisparent^ should a substance be mentioned that 
will allow light to pass through, but will not permit ob- 
jects to be seen distinctly through it. For this quality 
the term translucent may be given. 

When a substance is translucent the light will pass 
through it, but we can not see objects distinctly through 
it. We can not distinguish shape and color through 
translucent objects. 

Ground glass is translucent. 
P2 



are opaque. 

They can not be seen through. 



346 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Opaque. — The pupils will now be prepared to give a 
list of objects which can not he seen through. These 
may be written on the blackboard : 
Slate, - 
Wood, 
Iron, 
Paper, } 
Lead, 
Tin, 
Chalk, 

Can you mention as many objects that are transpar- 
ent as you can that are opaque ? 

Why do you say the paper is opaque ? 
When do you say any thing is opaque ? 

Elastic and Elasticity. — The teacher, having provided 
herself with pieces of whalebone, rattan, steel sjDring, 
sponge. India-rubber, etc., takes up a piece of whale- 
bone, and bends it, at the same time requesting the 
pupils to observe what 'it does when she lets the end 
go from one hand. l!^ext the rattan is taken, and bent 
in the same manner; then the steel spring. Now the 
pupils are asked to tell what movement they observed 
in each of these substances. Some children say " they 
go back;" others say "they fly back again;" one says 
" they spring back ;" some, that " they snap." 

The teacher then remarks, When I bend the whale- 
bone, and let one end of it go, you see that it springs 
hach to its place again. When I bend the steel spring, 
and let one end of it go, it sj)rings back to its place 
again. Now, when I bend the rattan, and let one end 
of it go, what does it do ? 

"It springs back to its place again." 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 347 

When I let the end of the bent whalebone go, what 
does it do ? 

"It springs back to its plape again." 

"What does the steel spring do as I let one end go 
after bending it ? 

" It springs back again." 

The teacher next takes np a piece oi India-Tuhhei\ 
stretches it out, and lets one end of it go, at the same 
time requesting the children to observe what the rub- 
ber does. Some of the pupils reply, "It snaps;" others 
say "it flies back again;" one says "it springs back 
again." 

Again taking up the lohalehone and bending it as be- 
fore, the teacher asks. What does the whalebone do after 
being bent ? 

" It springs back." 

What does the rubber do after being stretched ? 

" It springs back." 

Next the teacher takes up a piece of moist sponge^ 
from which the water has been squeezed. While com- 
j)ressing the sponge, she requests the children to ob- 
serve and tell what she is doing. Various answers are 
given, as " squeezing it," " pinching it," " pressing it." 
On removing the pressure, she asks, What does the 
sponge do now? 

" It goes back to its shape again." 

The teacher then says, suiting her actions to lier 
words. When I squeeze this sponge and let go of it — 

" It springs back again." 

When I stretch this India-rubber and let it go — 

"It springs back." 

When I bend the whalebone and let it go — 

"It springs back." 



348 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Taking a flat piece of whalebone or thin steel, the 
teacher twists it, and requests the pupils to observe 
what it does when she lets one end go. 
" It springs back to its place again." 
Having thus fully prepared the class for the word 
which is used to signify this power of springing back, 
the teacher proceeds, I will now tell you a word whicli 
means springing hack y it is elastic ; and I will write it 
on the blackboard, that you may observe how it looks, 
and learn to spell it. At the same time she turns to 
the board and forms the word in plain letters. Again 
turning to the class, she says. Spell elastic. What does 
elastic mean ? 

" Springing back." 

Now I wish you to mention such things as you think 
have this power oi springing hach^ and I will write their 
names on the blackboard as you give them to me. 

As the children mention the names of elastic sub- 
stances, the teacher writes on the board, and soon a 
list is formed which presents an appearance similar to 
the following : 
Whalebone, 
Rattan, 
India-rubber, 
Steel spring, 
Sponge, 
Quill, 
Feathers, 
Wool, 

The lesson is now reviewed by questions somewhat 
as follows, viz. : 
Why do we say whalebone is elastic ? 
" Because it will spring back after being hent^ 



are elastic. 

Each has the power of spring- 
ing hach 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 349 

Why do we say a steel spring is elastic ? 

" Because it will spring back after being benC^ 

Why do we say that India-rubber is elastic ? 

" Because it will spring back after being stretched^ 

Why do we say sponge is elastic ? 

" Because it will spring back after being squeezed.'''' 

When do we say any thing is elastic ? 

"When it will spring back after being hent^ stretched, 
squeezed, or tioistedy 

Is lead elastic ? 

" No ; it will not spring back after being bent." 

Are copper wire and tin elastic ? 

" No ; they will not spring back." 

You can stretch chewing-gum ; is that elastic ? 

" No ; it does not spring back." 

Is a boy's ball elastic ? 

" Yes ; it will bound or spring back when thrown 
against any thing hard." 

At a subsequent lesson, after reviewing this quality, 
the teacher may inform her pupils that we sometimes 
call this power of springing back again elasticity, at the 
same time writing the word on the blackboard. She 
then adds, Every thing that will spring back after be- 
ing bent, stretched, squeezed, or twisted, has elasticity. 

Then India-rubber has— " Elasticity." 

And whalebone " — " 

And sponge " — " 

And wool " — 

And a quill « _ « 

Now you have seen that elastic means springing back, 
and that elasticity means the poicer of springing hach. 
Thus you see we may say that an object is elastic; also 



350 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

that it has elasticity. Why do we say any thing has 
elasticity f 

"Because it has the power oi springing hack after be- 
ing bent^ stretched, squeezed, or twisted.'''' 

Is snow elastic ? 

" Snow has no elasticity ; it has not the power of 
springing back after being squeezed." 

Why does the boy's ball bounce when he throws it 
upon the ground? 

" Because it has elasticity." 

Will a ball of putty bounce when thrown upon the 
hard ground ? 

Is dough elastic ? 

Flexible and Pliable. — The quality of being easily bent 
or folded is expressed by the wovdi^ flexible, flexile, and 
pliable. To lead children to perceive this quality, the 
teacher may provide pieces of leather, cloth, cord, paper, 
whalebone, willow, lead, etc., and show that each of these 
articles will bend easily, and that some of them may be 
folded, as cloth, paper, etc. 

When the pupils have become familiar with this qual- 
ity, tell them that all things which may be bent ov fold- 
ed easily oxe flexible. 

Then request them to give a list of articles that can 
be bent easily, Avhich the teacher may write on the 
blackboard : 
Cloth, ^ 

^ ' 2iYQ flexible. 

^ J' \ They are easily bent. 
Lead, 

Leather, ^ 

We might also say these things are pliable, for this 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 351 

word means easily bent, or folded. But it is more 
common to use the word pliable w^hen the quality is 
that of being easily folded. 

Why do Ave say leather is flexible ? 

" Because it is easily bent." 

Why do we say sponge is flexible? 

" Because it is easily com2Jressed or bent." 

Why do we say "paper is pliable ? 

" Because it is easily folded." 

Why do we say whalebone is flexible ? 

" Because it is easily bent." 

When do we say any thing is flexible ? 

" When it can be easily bent." 
' When do we say any thing is pliable ? 

" When it may be easily folded." 

Mention things that are pliahle, or may be folded. 

Mention things that are not pliable. 

Liquid and Fluid. — To lead the pupils to perceive the 
qualities liquid and fluid^ it would be well to procure 
small vials filled with water, milk, oil, molasses, etc., 
and, showing each to the pupils, tell them what the 
several vials contain. Then request the members of 
the class to observe hoio the water, milk, oil, etc., flow 
as you proceed to pour out each so as to cause it to 
form- into dro2^s. Call the attention of the pupils to the 
maimer of flowing by saying. See how the water flows. 
Now see how the milk flows. Look at the oil ; see how 
it flows. Who will tell me how each of these flow ? 

"They aWflovj in drops.'^'' 

Then say to the pupils. You may now tell me the 
names of things that flow in drops, and I will write 
them on the blackboard : 



352 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Water, 



are liquids. 
Thejjlow i7i drops^ and wet. 



Milk, 
Ink, 

Vinegar, 
Oil, 
Molasses, , 

Why do we say water is a liquid ? 

"Because it will flow in drops,' and will wet or 
moisten." 

Why do you say milk is a liquid ? 

When do we say any thing is a liquid ? 

" When it will flow in drops, and will wet." 

How do you know that these things flow in drops ? 

" We can see them drop." 

Very good; but there are some things which j^oio 
that you can not see. If I should open a window, you 
might feel the wind or air flowing into this room. 
Could you see it ? How, then, could you know that 
the air was flowing into the room ? 

"We could feel it." 

If I should turn on the gas without lighting it, it 
would flow into the room. Could you see it ? Then 
how might you know that gas was flowing into the 
room ? " We could smell it." 

Thus you perceive that we can not see air and gas 
when they flow; we can only/ee? them or smell them. 
As you feel the air flowing, does it seem to come in 
drops or in a stream ? 

" It flows in a stream." 

We call any thing that flows easily, like air and gas, 
2i fluid. Water, milk, etc., flow easily, so we may call 
ih^^Q^ fluids also. 

Now read what I write on the blackboard : 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 353 

Any thing that flows easily ^like air, gas^ water, milJc, 
etc., is a fluid. 

Any thing thatfloics i?i drops is a liquid. 
\ What do we call any thing that will flow easily ? 

What do we call any thing that will flow in drops ? 

You see that all liquids are fluids ; but so7ne fluids 
are not liquids. 

If you put water or milk in a cup, what will be the 
shape of the water or milk ? 

If you put milk in a tumbler, what will be the shape 
of the milk? 

If you put water in a pail, what will be the shape of 
the water ? 

Thus you see that liquids alioays taJce the shape of 
the vessel that contains them. 

Have liquids any shape of their own ? 

How could you cause milk to take the shape of a 
cylinder ? 

You may now mention the names of fluids ; 
Air, 
Gas, 
Steam, 
Mercury, 
Alcohol, 
Water, 

Why do we say air is a fluid ? 

Do you drink fluids ? 

Ask a sufficient variety of questions to make it cer- 
tain that the pupils hnow what is meant by the terms 
fluid and liquid. 

Solid. — To give children an idea of the quality solid, 
take a piece of chalk, a pencil, a marble, a piece of wood. 



are fluids. 

They flow easily. 



354 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

a key, and other objects, and lead the pupils to com- 
pare them Avith water and other liquids. Call attention 
to the fact that these substances will not flow; that they 
have the poicer of retaining shape. When the pupils 
are able to readily distinguish and name objects that 
have this power of retaining shape and will not flow, 
they may be told that each of these substances is a solid. 
Ask questions similar to those in connection with the 
other qualities. 

Absorbent. — For leading children to observe the qual- 
ity absorbent^ provide a sponge, blotting-paper, a lump 
of sugar, and piece of cloth. Show the pupils that the 
sponge, cloth, and sugar will suck up loater, and that 
the blotting-paper will suck up ink, or other liquids. 
Tell them that Ave say any thing that Avill suck up 
liquids is absorbent ; that absorbent means draioing in 
or sucking up. 

Request them to name objects that are absorbent, to 
be written on the blackboard, proceeding as with other 
qualities. 

Combustible and Inflammable.— The idea of the qual- 
ity called combustible may be brought clearly to the 
comprehension of children by telling them that all things 
that loill take fire and burn, as wood, coal, cloth, etc., are 
combustible. 

The idea of inflammable may be made plain by tell- 
ing them that all things which take fire readily and burn 
with afiame, as paper, oil, kerosene, gas, etc., are inflam- 
mahle. 

Write on the blackboard : 

Things that loill take fire and burn are combustible. 



LESSOXS ON QUALITIES. 355 

Things that take fire easily and hum icith aflame are 
inflammable. 

Request the pupils to give lists of objects that are 
combustible and inflammable, to be written on the 
blackboard in separate columns. 

Fusible. — By directing the attention of children to 
the familiar fact that some things melt by heat, while 
others will not melt, they may obtain a clear idea of 
the quality known as flusible. 

To aid in giving them a good understanding of this 
quality, let them mention names of substances that will 
melt by heat, and write these on the blackboard ; then 
ask questions about the quality, as in the other les- 
sons. 

If the class be composed of pui^ils whose ages are 
more than ten years, the temperatures at which various 
substances will melt might be given. The following 
list will furnish the teacher with information for this 
purpose : 

Degrees of Heat at ichich Substances Melt. 



Ice melts at 


32°. 


Zinc 


melts at 


700°. 


Tallow 


100°. 


Silver 




1870°. 


Wax 


150°. 


Copper 




1990°. 


India-rubber " 


250°. 


Gold 




2200°. 


Tin 


445°. 


Iron 




2800°. 


Lead 


G00°. 


Platina 




3000°. 



Sollfble. — Taking salt, sugar, gum-arabic, or glue, and 
dissolving tliem in water, will give children an idea of 
the quality known as soluble. The usual exercises, 
questions, etc., may be had, and the definition written 
on the blackboard : 



356 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Any thing that will melt or dissolve in a liquid is 
soluble. 

Pungent. — By talking with children that have had 
special home training in the use of their senses, about 
the taste of pepper, cloves, ginger, mustard, etc., they 
may be led to understand the meaning and use of the 
term pungent. The usual exercises may be had with 
the blackboard, and the following definition given: 

Pungent — biting to the taste ; having a warm, prick- 
ing taste. 

Astringent.— Direct the attention of children to the 
taste of alum, choke-cherries, oak bark, etc., and lead 
them to observe the efiect of these substances upon 
the tongue and mouth. Tell them that the quality 
which will produce the feeling of drawing together, or 
a puckery taste, is called astringent. 

Write on the blackboard : 

Astringent — drawing together^ or puckery to the 
taste. 

Other qualities may be illustrated in a similar man- 
ner. Care should be had not to allow these exercises 
to become merely those oi teaching definitions of quali- 
ties. They are equally valuable for their effects in the 
discipline of the pupils' minds, and in giving them habits 
of careful observation in relation to the properties of 
objects. They are also valuable for their influelice on 
the teacher's general methods of instruction. 

The following qualities may also be taught in accord- 
ance with the methods already illustrated. 



LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 357 

Fibrous — stringy; containing thread-like parts ; full 
of threads or fine strings, as whalebone, bark of some 
trees, rattan, willow, linen, etc. 

Odorous — having a smell, or odor, as camphor, co- 
logne, tobacco, onion. 

Fragrant — having a sweet smell, or odor, as a rose, a 
violet, new-mown hay, coffee, etc. 

Acid — having a sour taste, as lemon, vinegar, etc. 

Crumbling — breaking into small pieces easily, as bread, 
cake, chalk, etc. 

Granular — composed of small grains, as sugar, salt, 
sandstone, etc. 

Malleable — may he easily spread out by pounding or 
beating, as lead, gold, silver, copper, some iron, etc. 

Ductile — may be drawn out into fine loire, as gold, sil- 
ver, copper, iron, etc. 

Tenacity — holding with great strength when draion 
out into wire; very strong, as wire made of silver, gold, 
iron, copper, etc. 

Volatile — easily 2^cissing into the air, as camphor, 
spirits of turpentine, and the various perfumes. 

Nutritious — sustainitig life and promoting growth, as 
the various kinds of food. 



358 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Grouping Qualities by the Senses. — When several 
qualities have been learned, an interesting exercise 
may be had by requiring the pupils to arrange the 
qualities in groups, each to be designated by the sense 
through which it is perceived. To do this, the teacher 
may write the names of the senses on the blackboard, 
and, as each quality is mentioned, let the puj^ils tell 
where its name should be written, so that when the 
lesson is finished it shall appear somewhat as follows. 



VIZ. 



Qualities perceived through the 



Sense of Sight. 


Sense of Feeling. 


Sense of Taste. 


Sense of Smell. 


Transparent. 


Smooth. 


Pungent. 


Fragrant. 


Opaque. 


Rough. 


Acid. 


Odorous. 


Porous. 


Sticky. 


Astringent. 


Volatile. 


Combustible. 


Slippery. 


Sweet. 


Rancid. 


Inflammable. 


Brittle. 


Bitter. 


Aromatic. 


Absorbent. 


Tough. 


Spicy. 


Spicy. 


Fusible. 








Soluble. 


Soluble. 






Elasticity. 


Elasticity. 






Flexible. 


Pliable. 






Liquid. 


Fluid. 






Solid. 


Solid. 






Crumblinof. 


Crumbling. 






Granular. 


Granular. 






Malleable. 


Malleable. 







SUGGESTION FOR THE TEACHER. 

The spelling of the name of each quality should be taught during the 
lesson on that quality. 



OBJECT LESSONS. 

THEIR NATURE AND DESIGN. 

Lessoxs on " Common Things," given chiefly to im- 
part information about the thing selected for the lesson, 
without any system or order of arrangement, are fre- 
quently,but improperly, called " Object Lessons." Some- 
times teachers who give occasional information about 
things of every-day life suppose that they are carrying 
out the principles of object teaching. This misconcep- 
tion of the true system of instruction by Object Lessons 
is one of the serious obstacles in the way of its general 
and successful introduction into all elementary schools. 

True Object Lessons are arranged with special adap- 
tation to the mental condition of the pupils to whom 
they are to be given ; and they are made to keep prom- 
inently in view the development of the faculties of chil- 
dren, and the cultivation of habits of ready and accurate 
observation. The manner of giving information is made 
the means of training the mental powers of the pupils, 
so that the instruction necessarily becomes much more 
valuable than any exercise of the memory. 

To hold an object before a class, and tell its shaj^e, 
color, size, what it is made of, its name and use, and 
then to ask the pupils to repeat all of that information, 
is not giving an object lesson. 

Again, to hold an object before a class, and ask. What 
is this ? to what kingdom does it belong ? where is it 
found? what is it used for? is not giving an object 
lesson. 



360 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

All similar methods are at best merely an exercise of 
the memory, and fail to meet the conditions of object 
teaching. Telling a child that which it should be led 
to observe is not developing its mind. Filling the 
memory with words to be repeated in response to 
questions is not education. The children's own senses 
of sight, touch, taste, and hearing must be exercised to 
produce mental development. Any plan of primary 
teaching that does not provide for such training is de- 
fective. It is not in accordance with good common 
sense nor true objective teaching. 

In giving these lessons, the object itself should be 
before the pupils, or it should have been previously so 
carefully observed by them that they can recall its 
shape, color, uses, and principal qualities. 

" To tell a child this and to shoio it the other, is not 
to teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere re- 
cipient of another's observations — a proceeding which 
weakens rather than strengthens its powers of self- in- 
struction ; which deprives it of the pleasure resulting 
from successful activity; which presents this all-attract- 
ive knowledge under the aspect of formal tuition ; and 
which thus generates that indifference and even disgust 
with which these object lessons are sometimes regard- 
ed. On the other hand, to pursue the true course is 
simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food, 
and to habituate the mind from the beginning to that 
practice of self-help which it must ultimately follow. 

" Children should be led to make their own investi- 
gations and to draw their own inferences. They should 
be told as little as possible, and induced to discover as 
much as possible. Humanity has progressed solely by 
self-instruction ; and that, to achieve the best results. 



OBJECT LESSONS. 361 

each mind must progress somewhat after the same 
fashion, is continually proved by the marked success 
of self-made men."* 

A very important point to be attended to in giving 
these lessons is the adaptation of them to the different 
stages of advancement of the children to whom they 
are given. A child of five years is quite a different be- 
ing intellectually from one of ten ; hence we should not 
attempt to lead children to the observation of those 
qualities that require the exercise of faculties which are 
not developed until the period of youth, nor to consider 
a subject which requires a previous training to under- 
stand before that training has been given. 

To illustrate this idea more clearly, we will indicate 
some of the properties of objects that maybe presented 
for observation during different stages of school life. 
Of course these divisions must hot be considered as ab- 
solute ; they are rather suggestive, and designed to aid 
teachers in making a proper arrangement of object les- 
sons for their own classes. 

Some teachers limit their lessons to specimens from 
cabinets of curiosities; the consequence is, that such les- 
sons usually become mechanical as soon as the novelty 
of the objects has passed. Often these specimens are 
such as are rarely seen by the children, and they fail to 
awaken a desire to examine more common objects, and 
to cultivate those habits which w^ill lead children to be- 
come interested in every thing around them. 

It should be understood that these lessons on objects 
can not be properly introduced until the pupils have 
received training in some of the steps of Form, Color, 
Number, Size, etc. 

* Herbert Spencer. 

Q 



362 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

First stage. — During this period the pupil may be re- 
quired to distinguish objects by their ?iames, to observe 
and name their i:>rincipal parts^ to describe their form^ 
color, and uses. 

Second Stage. — During this period, which may com- 
mence in the second year of school life, the lessons 
should embrace the form, color, size, material, qualities, 
and uses of objects, and answers to the simple inquiry, 
where obtained? or, by ichom made f 

Third Stage. — During this period, which should com- 
mence in the third year of school life, the lessons may 
include a more complete analysis of the several proper- 
ties of objects, and attention to the adaptation of their 
prominent qualities to the purposes for which these ob- 
jects are commonly used. 

In presenting the following sketches of lessons, I have 
taken up a variety of objects, and endeavored to sug- 
gest how similar exercises may be given during the sev- 
eral periods of school attendance. 

Teachers should not be satisfied with copying these 
sketches and teaching only these lessons ; they should 
acquire the necessary skill by practice to enable them 
to prepare similar lessons on other objects. Those who 
do this will teach much more successfully than those 
who merely attempt to repeat what others have pre- 
pared. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 363 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 

FIRST STAGE. 

Suggestions for the Teacher. — In giving these Lessons on 
Objects, it is very necessary that the information obtained from the 
children should not be drawn out by such questions as will enable them 
to answer " Yes" and ' ' No. " They must be led to see, observe, think, 
and tell, to derive the intended benefit from the lessons. Train the 
pupils to do most of the talking about the object. 



A CHAIR. 

The teacher may place a chair before the class, and 
ask for the name of the object. Then the name may be 
written on the blackboard, the word pronounced^ sound- 
ed, and spelled. 

Parts. — Placing her hand upon the back of the chair, 
the teacher asks, " What is this part of the chair called? 
"Back." 

This word is tlien written on the blackboard, pro- 
nounced, sounded, and spelled. 

Next the teacher touches the seat, its name is given 
by the pupils, and the word written under the Avord 
hack., and pronounced, sounded, and spelled. 

Then the legs are touched, name given, written, pro- 
nounced, sounded, and spelled. 

Then the rounds or bars are touched, names given, 
Avritten, etc., as before. 

Each pupil may now be called upon to touch a part 
of the chair, and point to its name on the blackboard. 

Suppose the chair had no back, would it be as com- 



364 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

fortabie as it is now? "No; we could not rest well 
when tired." 

Why not ? " There would be nothing to lean against. " 

Suppose it had no seat, what would be the conse- 
quence? "There would be nothing to sit upon; it 
would not be of any use." 

Suppose it had no legs. " The seat would be on the 
floor; it would be too low to be of use." 

Suppose it had no bars. " The chair would soon fall 
to pieces." 

How many parts are there in this chair? Of which 
parts are there only one each ? " Of the seat and the 
back." 

How many legs are there ? " Four." 

Why does a chair have four legs instead of two ? " It 
could not stand on two legs." 

How many bars or rounds are there ? 

Uses of Parts. — The teacher may next proceed to talk 
about the various uses of chairs, and then ask. What is 
the use of the back? "To lean against." 

This may be written on the blackboard opposite the 
word back. 

What is the use of the seat ? " To sit on." 

This may be written opposite the word seat. 

What is the use of the legs? "To keep the seat 
up?" 

This may be written after the word legs. 

What is the use of the bars ? " To hold the legs to- 
gether, and make the chair strong." 

Shape of Parts. — The teacher may now proceed to 
point to the parts of the chair, and ask the shape of 
each, thus : What is the shape of the back ? " It is ob- 
long, with curved sides and end." 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 365 

This may be written on the blackboard after the use 
of the back. 

What is the shape of the seat ? " Four-sided, with 
sides curved." 

This may be written after the use of the seat. 

What is the shape of the legs ? " Cylindrical." 

What is the shape of the bars ? " Some are cylin- 
drical, and some are flat and oblong." 

When the lesson is finished, its appearance on the 
blackboard will be somewhat like the following : 





CHAIE. 




Parts. 


Uses of Parts. 


Shax)e of Parts. 


Back. 


To lean against. 


Oblong, with curved sides 
and end. 


Seat. 


To sit on. 


Four -sided, with sides 
curved. 


Legs. 


To keep the seat up. 


Cylindrical. 


Bars, or> 

rounds. > 


To hold the legs together, and 


Some are flat and oblong, 


make the chair strong. 


and some cylindrical. 



Pupils may now be called upon to go to the black- 
board, and, while pointing to what has been written, de- 
scribe the chair somewhat as follows : 

" The chair is made of wood. The parts of the chair 
are back, seat, legs, and bars.. The use of the back is to 
lean against ; the seat, to sit on ; the legs, to keep the 
seat up ; the bars, to hold the legs together, and make 
the chair strong. The shape of the back is oblong, with 
curved sides and end ; the seat is four-sided, with curved 
sides ; the legs are cylindrical ; some of the bars are flat 
and oblong, and some are cylindrical." 

Afterward pupils may point to the parts of the chair, 
and describe it, without reading from the blackboard. 



366 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Kinds of Chairs. — This lesson may be extended, or an 
additional one given on the chair. Write on the black- 
board Kinds of Chairs and their Uses ; then request 
the pupils to give the names of all the kinds of chairs 
that they have seen, and let these names be written un- 
der the proper head. Then their uses may be men- 
tioned, and these written under the appropriate head. 
When the lesson is finished, the blackboard might con- 
tain something like the following : 



Kinds of Chairs. 


Their Uses. 


Dining chair. 


To sit on at the table. 


Parlor " 


" ■" "in the parlor. 


Easy 


" rest in. 


Rocking " 


" " " while rocking. 


Arm 


" " the arms while sitting. 


Little " 


For little children to sit on. 


High " 


Some are for little children to sit on at the table. 



The preceding sketch of a lesson on a chair will serve 
as a model for lessons on the following objects, viz. : 
table, pail, stool, bench, door, desk, box, basket. 

When properly conducted, these lessons on objects 
become exceedingly valuable aids in teaching reading 
and spelling, as well as in training children to observe 
carefully and describe intelligently. 

BELLS. 

Taking a bell in her hand, the teacher asks, What is 
this? "A bell." What do we do with it? "Ring 
it;" "Make it ring." 

I will make the word bell on the blackboard, and you 
may pronounce it, and sound it, then spell it. 

Taking up the bell by its handle, the teacher asks. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 367 

With what am I holding this bell ? " With the hand." 
What part of the bell do I take hold of? " Its handle." 

Yery good. I hold the bell with my hand^ and I 
take hold of the handle. We call this the handle be- 
cause it is the part which we take with the " ." 

The word handle may now be written on the black- 
board under the word Parts. When the handle has 
been pronounced, sounded, and spelled, the teacher takes 
up the bell, holds it with the mouth upward, so as to 
make it resemble a cup. She then asks. What have 
you seen of the shape of this part of the bell ? "A 
cup;" "A tea-cup." 

Yery good. We will call the name of this part of 
the bell the cup. I will write the word under handle. 
What word have I made under handle ? " Cup." 

Of what is this word a name ? " A part of the 
bell." 

Holding the opening of the cup toward the children, 
the teacher says, When you open your mouth and speak, 
something moves inside of it. Can you tell Avhat it is? 
" The tongue." 

When you look in the mouth of this bell, what can 
you see? "A tongue;" "A clapper." 

What does the tongue do to the cup ? " It makes it 
ring." 

Where do you see the tongue ? " In the cup." 

What may we call the open part of the cup ? " Its 
mouth." 

Let the words tongue and mouth be written nnder 
cuj), and spelled as before. 

The teacher may next proceed to talk about the uses 
of])arts^ and ask, What is the use of the handle ? " To 
take hold of" 



368 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Write tliis on the blackboard after the word handle, 
under the head " Uses of PartsP 

What is the use of the cuj) ? " To ring." 

Write this after cuj). 

What is the use of the tongue ? " To make the bell 
ring." 

Does your tongue tell any thing when you speak? 

Then your tongue enables you to talk. Does the 
tongue of the bell tell any thing ? 

Why do I ring this bell when you are in the yard ? 

Why do I rin'g it in school ? 

Then it tells you something each time that I ring it, 
but it does not always tell the same thing. When you 
talk your tongue tells something, but it does not al- 
ways tell the same thing. Now what is the use of the 
tongue of the bell ? " To tell something." 

Write this after the word tongue. 

When you talk, do you keep your mouth shut ? 

Why do you open your mouth when you talk ? " So 
we can speak;" "To let the sound out." 

Very good ; you open your mouth to let the sound 
out. What use is the mouth of the bell ? " To let the 
sound out." 

At this stage the lesson on the blackboard might ap- 
pear somewhat as follows : 





BELL, 




Parts. 




Uses of Parts. 


Handle. 




To take hold of. 


Cup. 




To ring. 


Tongue. 




To tell something. 


Mouth. 




To let the sound out. 



Pupils may now be required to point to the wore 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. S69 

on the blackboard, and read them*thus : " A bell. Its 
parts are handle, cup, tongue, and mouth. The uses of 
the parts : The handle is to take hold of; the cup, to 
ring ; the tongue, to tell something ; and the mouth, to 
let the sound out." 

By a suitable conversation with the pupils, they may 
be led to mention various kinds of bells, and tell why 
they ring. These names, etc., may be written on -the 
blackboard somewhat as- follows : 

BELLS. 



Kinds 0/ Bells. 


What they tell lis. 


Door 


bell. 


Somebody at the door. 


Dinner 


(( 


Dinner is ready. 


Tea 


(( 


Come to tea. 


School 


(; 


Come to school. Take our seats. 


Church 


(( 


It is time to go to church. 


Fire 


(( 


A building is on fire. 


Car 


(( 


Stop the car. Make the car go on. 


Steam-boat 


(( 


The steam-boat is going to start. 


Ash 


iC 


Bring out the ashes. 


Cow 


(( 


"Where the cow is. 


Sleigh 


li 


A sleigh is coming. 



Let the pupils read this in a manner similar to the 
Parts of Bells and Uses of Parts." 



PIN. 

The teacher, showing a large pin to the class, may 
say. What am I holding in my hand ? "A pin." 

After illustrating the use of the pin in pinning things 
together. What can I do with the pin ? 

Why does this pin go through the cloth so easily? 
" Because it has a sharp point." 



319 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Why does not the pin hurt the finger when we push 
against the end of it ? " Because it has a head to push 
against." 

I will now write the word Pin on the blackboard ; 
also the words Parts^ Shape^ and Uses, 

Now, if you will tell me the names of the parts of the 
pin, I will write the words on the blackboard under the 
wordParfe. *'Head;" "Point;" "Body." 

What is the shape of the body of the pin? '' Cylin- 
drical." 

Can some one tell me any thing else about the body 
of the pin? "It is straight;" "It is smooth." 

Would the pin be useful if it was crooked ? What 
do we do with crooked pins ? Would the pin be useful 
if it was rough ? Why not ? " It would not go through 
cloth easily;" "It would tear the cloth." 

What is the shape of the point of a pin ? " Tapering 
and sharp ;" " Conical." 

Could we use a pin if it had no point ? 

What is the shape of the head of this pin? "Round 
and flat on the top ;" " Like an oblate spheroid." 

A needle will go quite through a piece of cloth; why 
will not the pin go through ? " The head of the pin will 
not let it go through." 

Could you sew with a needle if it had a head like a 
pin? 

What is the use of the head of a pin ? " To keep the 
pin in its place ;" " To prevent it from hurting our fin- 
gers when- we fasten any thing with it." 

What is the use of the point ? 

What is the use of the body of the pin ? 

When the lesson is drawn out and written on the 
blackboard, it will appear somewhat as follows ; 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 371 



PIN. 



Parts. 


Shape. 




Uses. 


Point. 


Conical. 




Go through cloth easily. 


Head. 


Oblate spheriod. 




Push against ; hold the pin in 
its place; to keep it from 
hurting the fingers. 


Body. 


( Cylindrical. 
t Straight. 


) 


To hold parts of the dress to- 
gether. 



The teacher may talk about the size of pins, as large 
and small/ of the color, as lohite, blacTc, and yellow. 

The children should be shown the importance of not 
using pins where strings or buttons should be used ; 
also the danger of placing pins in the mouth. 

The lesson should be read, the words spelled, etc. 

WATCH. 

Holding a watch before the children, the teacher asks, 
What is this ? "A watch." 

Now look at it, and tell me what you can see. " I 
see the face." " The hands." 

Where are the hands ? " On the face." " The face is 
white." " It has figures on it." " It is circular." 

Very well. What else do you see? "There is a 
glass over the face." "There is a rim around the 
face." 

What is the use of this rim ? " To hold the glass." 

What else can you say about the watch ? " It has 
a case." "The case will open." "It has a stem." 
" There is a ring in the stem." 

What is the use of the ring ? " To take hold of when 
pulling the watch from the pocket, and to fasten the 
chain to the watch." 



372 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Is there any part of the watch which you do not see? 
"Yes, we can not see the hiside." 

Let us look inside of the watch. What do those 
wheels do ? " Move round." 

Does any part of the watch which you can see move 
round ? " Yes, the hands." 

Who can tell me what these hands are for ? " To 
point out the time of day." 

How many hands are there ? "Two." 

Are both alike ? " No ; one is longer than the other." 

You have told me several parts that you could see ; 
now is there any way by which you could tell that there 
is a watch in my hand without seeing it ? " We could 
hear it if it was near to our ears." 

When you hear the watch, what do you say it does ? 

"It ticks." 

The teacher may now write on the blackboard the 
words Watch and Parts^ and the name of each part un- 
der the word Parts. 

Now let us talk about the use of a watch. " It is 
to show us what time it is." 

Is there any thing else that tells us the time ? " Yes, 
a clock." 

Which is the largest — a watch or a clock ? 

What are the uses of the parts of the watch ? " The 
wheels are to turn round and make the hands move." 
" The case is to hold the wheels." " The face is for the 
figures and hands." " The hands point out the time." 
" The glass keeps the hands from being broken, and the 
dirt out of the watch." " The stem is to take hold of." 
" The ring is to fasten it to the chain." 

The names and uses of the parts may be written on 
the blackboard, and spelled as in former lessons. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 3V3 

HAT. 

We will have a talk to-day about something that is 
worn on the head. What do you think it is ? "A cap ;" 
"A hat;" "A bonnet." 

I will print the name of it on the blackboard, and 
then you may tell me what it is. " A hat." 

Very good. Who will lend me a hat to look at while 
we talk about it ? Thank you, Willie, I will try to 
make a good use of your hat. I have placed the word 
hat on the blackboard; now I will write the words 
Parts^ Sliape^ and Uses. 

Now, as I touch a part of the hat, the class may 
tell me the name of that part. *' Crown." " Brim." 
"Body." "Band," "Binding." "Lining." "Trim- 
ming." 

James may come here and touch the crovm of this 
hat. 

Henry may point to the body of the hat. 

George may show us which part is called the brim. 

Henry may point to the band. 

Horace may show us which part is called the binding, 

John may point to the lining. 

Charles may show us where the trimmings are. 

You may now tell me the shape of these parts, and I 
will write it on the blackboard. " The crown is circu- 
lar." " The body is like a hemisphere." " The body 
of most hats are cylindrical." " The brim is circular, 
somewhat like a flat ring." " The band is like a hoop." 

The binding^ lining^ etc., have various shapes, and it 
would not be worth while to trouble a class to try to 
give the shape of these. 

Let us now talk about the uses of these parts of the 



374 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



hat. The teacher may proceed to ask various ques- 
tions, until the children have observed and mentioned 
uses for these several j^arts, and these should be written 
on the blackboard. When the lesson is completed, it 
will appear somewhat as follows : 



HAT. 



Parts. 


Shape. 


Uses. 


Crown. 


Circular. 


To cover the top of the head. 


Body. 


Cylindrical. 


To cover the sides of the head and 
give shape to the hat. 


Brim. 


Flat ring. 


To protect the face and neck from 
sun and storm. 


Band. 


Like a hoop. 


To keep the size of the hat. To 
make it look well. 


Binding 






Lining. 






Trimming. 







This lesson should be read by the pupils from the 
blackboard in a manner similar to preceding lessons. 



SHOES. 

What do children wear on their feet? "Shoes." 
"Stockings." "Boots." 

We will talk about only one of these things to-day, 
and I will write the name of that one on the black- 
board. What word did I make ? " Shoes." 

Whe7i do children wear shoes ? 

Do they wear shoes all night ? 

Why do you wear shoes ? 

Can you tell me what shoes are made of? 

Which do you think are better to wear — shoes made 
of leather, or shoes made of cloth ? 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 375 

Why do you think shoes made of leather are better 
than those made of cloth ? 

What is the man called who makes shoes ? 

Who can tell me the names of parts of a shoe ? 
"Toe." "Heel." "Sole." "String." "Upper part." 
"Inside." "Tongue." 

Continue the conversation, leading the children to 
give the names of different kinds of shoes, and their 
uses. When finished, the lesson ou the blackboard may 
show the following statements : 







SHOES. 




Kinds. 






Parts. 


Kid 


shoes. 




Toe. 


Morocco 


(C 




Heel. 


Cloth 


u 




Sole. 


Buttoned 


u 




String. 


Laced 


li 




Tongue. 


Gaiter 


(C 




Inside. 


Slipper 


C( 




Upper part. 



DOOR. 

What do you open when you go into a room ? " The 
door." 

What should you shut when you enter a room ? " The 
door." 

What is the use of a door ? 

What are doors made of? 

What is the shape of the door ? 

Which w^ay is the door longer ? " Up and down." 

What keeps the door from falling down when we 
open it ? " The hinges." 

What holds the door shut ? " The latch ; or a lock." 



376 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. . 

Talk with the pupils about the parts of the door, and 
their uses, until they are able to give information that 
may be written on the blackboard in a form similar to 
the following : 

DOOE. 

Parts. Descriptions and Uses of Parts. 

Panels. Oblong thin parts in the centre of the door. 

Stiles. Long, narrow, upright parts by the sides of the 

panels. 
Kails. Horizontal parts at the ends of the panels. 

Hinges. The iron parts on which the door hangs and moves. 

^ * [- Parts used to hold the door shut. 

Lock. ) 

Let the pupils read this ; also spell the names of the 
parts. 



A LETTER. 

Show the children letters inclosed in envelopes. Re- 
quest them to tell the shape of an envelope. 

Shape. — Oblong, flat. 

Oolor. — Mivelopes are white, buff, bluish, sometimes 
straw color. ^\\q paper of the letter is white, sometimes 
bluish. 

Parts. — Outside. The envelope is a paper pocket or 
cover for the letter, to keep it clean, and to prevent any 
one from seeing what is written in the letter. The writ- 
iyig on the envelope tells the postman where to take the 
letter.^ and to whom it should he delivered. The postage 
stamp., in the upper right-hand corner, ^ays /or carrying 
the letter. The stamp must be put on the letter before 
sending it. The seal or gum fastens the letter so that 
no one can read it before it reaches the person for whom 



LESSONS OX OBJECTS. 377 

it was written. It is a great crime to open a letter 
that does not belong to you. The post-marJc^ or circu- 
lar stamp containing letters and figures, near the post- 
age stamp, tells where the letter loas mailed^ or from what 
place it was sent ; also when it was sent. 

Inside. The inside of the letter contains a date^ show- 
ing lohen and where it was written ; also the name of 
the person who wrote it. This is called a signature. 
The writing between the date and the signature tells 
what the person who wrote the letter wants the person 
to know to whom it is sent. 

All of these facts should be properly brought out by 
showing letters, by conversation, etc., and, when fin- 
ished, the principal facts may be written on the black- 
board and read by the pupils. 

Thimble. — A lesson on the thimUe might lead to a 
consideration of the following facts relative to it: It 
tapers toward the top ; is hell-shape ; hollow inside, and 
fits on the finger like a cap ; is Avorn on the middle fin- 
ger of the right hand when sewing, to keep the needle 
from pricking the finger while pushing it through the 
cloth; the outside is covered with little holes called 
cells; the cells keep the needle from slipping while 
pushing it through the cloth ; it has a rim around the 
bottom to guard the finger from injury should the 
needle chance to slip ; it has a border around it, be- 
tween the cells and the rim. 

Write the outline of the lesson on the blackboard as 
it proceeds, and let the j^upils review the whole by read- 
ing the outline when the lesson is finished. 

The same plan should be pursued with all smiilar 
lessons. 



378 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Key. — A lesson on this object might lead the children 
to observe the following facts : The hey has a cylin- 
drical barrel^ which is hollow at one end ; it has an oval- 
shaped ring at the other end ; it has rings around the 
barrel ; on one side of the hollow end of the barrel is 
an oblong piece^ sometimes called the lip ; the lip con- 
tains grooves or notches. The oval ring is to turn the 
key; the lip to move the bolt in the lock; the hollow 
end of the barrel fits on a stem in the lock, which keeps 
the key in its place while moving the bolt. For what 
are keys used ? What kinds of keys have you seen ? 

The methods of conducting the preceding lessons will 
suggest how lessons may be given on the following ob- 
jects: 



Blackboard. 


Cap. 


Hammer. 


Slate. 


Cup. 


Needle. 


Window. 


Pencil. 


Knife. 


Clock. 


Boot. 


Book. 


Numeral Frame. 


Stove. 


Broom. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. 

During the lessons of the "first stage," such heads as the following 
might be written on the blackboard, and the pupils requested to men- 
tion appropriate objects, the names of which should be written under 
the headings to which they relate, as : 

*' Things we have for hreahfast." " Things we get for dinner."" 
" What is used in the kitchen." " What is in the parlor.'' *■'' Rooms 
in a house." " Parts of our clothing." " Things that may he bought 
at the grocery." " Things that grow in the garden." ^^ Kinds of 
meat used for food." '■''Kinds of fruit that we eat." 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 3l9 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 

SECOND STAGE. 

Suggestions for the Teacher. — In giving lessons on objects 
in this stage of training, it will be appropriate to lead the pupils to 
consider the materials of which the objects are made, their most prom- 
inent qualities, form, color, size, parts, uses, where found, or by whom 
made. 

Care should be taken not to allow these lessons to fall into a barren 
monotony by requiring the pupils to frequently mention those qualities 
which are so common to objects as almost to permit their being called 
universal qualities, as opaque, solid, useful, inanimate, etc. Chief at- 
tention should be given to the leading characteristics of objects, and 
especially to those qualities which contribute most to the usefulness of 
the objects. 



SPONGE. 

Pieces of sponge may be shown, and the children al- 
lowed to handle them, while a conversation is had be- 
tween the teacher and the j)upils which will lead them 
to observe that the color of the sponge is yellowish; 
that it is soft to the touch ; that it is compressible^ or 
easily squeezed by the hand; that it is elastic^ porous^ 
and absorbent. 

The conversation may also consider the itses of the 
sponge, as for hathmg, for washing carriages^ for clean- 
ing slates^ etc. ; and what qualities make it useful for 
these purposes, as soft, comjwessible, elastic, absorbent, 
s^n^ fibrous. 

If this lesson has been well presented, the black- 
board w^ill now contain an outline somewhat as fol- 
lows, viz. : 



380 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Its Qualities. 


SPONGE. 

How these make it Useful. 


Soft. 


Will not scratch. 


Compressible. 


Water may be easily squeezed out. 


Elasticity. 


Will quickly return to its shape again. 


Porous. 


The holes or pipes enable it to be ab- 


Absorbent. 


sorbent, or to suck up liquids. 


Fibrous. 


Not easily torn. 



It is Useful for 
Washing carriages, cleaning slates, and bathing. 

Its Color is It is Found 

Yellowish. On rocks in sea-water. 

The teacher should now question the pupils aPbout 
these qualities, their uses, etc., until they clearly under- 
stand how the sponge becomes useful by possessing 
these properties. Afterward tell w7ie7'e and how the 
sponge grows, and how it is obtained. 

now TPIE SPONGE GROWS. 

Suppose you were standing by the shore of the Med- 
iterranean, on a rock which jutted out a little way into 
the sea, you might observe a pile of sponge fastened 
under the water on the rock, and, as you watched it 
carefully, you would see now and then a jelly-like look- 
ing thing, resembling a drop of the white of an egg, 
and somewhat of the shape of a pear, but very small, 
fall off the side of an old sponge. This little thing is 
called a gemtiiide^ or bud. It has no shell nor skin to 
cover it, no eyes, no ears, no feet, and no fins, yet it has 
life, keeps itself from sinking, and not only moves up 
and down with quickness, but soon it becomes partly 
covered with fine hairs lik^ eyelashes, called cilia. The 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 381 

gemmule moves these cilia about quite rapidly, making 
a motion in the water, and starts off. As it swims, it 
looks as if it did not know what it wanted, nor where it 
was going. But its Creator knows, for He cares for it, 
and draws the little sjoonge gemmule far away from the 
old sponge, that it may live in another place, and so 
spread the good of its existence over the sides and bot- 
tom of the sea. 

If two of these gemmules happen to meet and to touch 
each other, they instantly stop -moving their cilia. The 
next moment they turn themselves round, and then off 
they go on their way through the water. After wan- 
dering about for some three days, the gemmule seems 
to become tired of roaming, and settles down upon some 
piece of rock, or shell, or wood, and begins to fasten the 
smaller end of its body to this hard substance. The 
place where it settles thus becomes its home as long as 
it lives. While this gemmule is making itself fast to the 
rock, its cilia keep the water around it in motion ; but 
in a few hours after it has fixed itself tight, these cilia 
become quiet, and this jelly-like animal lies down flat 
on the rock. 

Soon after the gemmule has become quiet, a great 
number of dark spots may be seen floating in its clear 
little body. These dark spots are the fibres of the 
sponge beginning to grow in the live jelly. These 
fibres are made of silex, lime, glue, and albumen, which 
substances are drawn into the body out of the sea- 
water. 

These little spots of sponge soon join together like a 
net-work, and make a sort of frame-work or skeleton for 
the live jelly to rest upon. As the sponge's frame-work 
grows in the gemmule, its live jelly grows too, and the 



382 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

jelly fills all the tubes and holes of the sporge, and 
even covers quite over the outside of the sponge. 

When the jelly is much grown, a great many fine 
spikes are sometimes seen to shoot out of the sides of 
the sponge tubes. It is suj^posed that these fine spikes 
are made to grow in the inside of the tubes, to prevent 
the weight of the growing sponge from pressing too 
heavily upon the live animal jelly. All around that 
part of the sponge wdiich is fastened on the rock you 
may see a clear rim of jelly spread out; and when two 
sponges grow so near each other that these rims touch, 
they immediately grow together, and make one lump 
of sponge. 

Persons have tried to take hold of the living jelly of 
the sponge, in order to see what it is like ; but they are 
always disappointed, for as soon as it is taken off the 
sponge, it turns into a kind of thick oil or glue, and 
soon dries up. 

As the sponge grows on the rocks, it throws up many 
round or cone-like heads, with large holes at the to]). 
The sides of the sponge are full of little holes or pores. 
It is by these little holes that the sponge draws the sea- 
water into its substance ; and after letting t-he water 
run through the whole mass of its body, the living 
creature throws out what it does not want through the 
large holes at the top, and often sends this water out 
with such force as to cause it to rise up like a little 
fountain. 

These sponge animals are of many shapes, according 
to their species. Some grow like shrubs, some like 
vases and tubes, and some like globes. All the sponges 
stick so tight to the rocks upon which they are fastened 
that the dashing of the waves hardly ever tears them 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 383 

off. Ill some places they are seen to cover cliffs and 
rocks ; in other places their soft bodies line the walls 
of caves deep undgr the waters ; and sometimes they 
hang in drooping branches from the roofs of the cav- 
erns.* 

Sponge is found in the various parts of the ocean, but 
the strongest sponge is obtained from the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. 

When the sponge is taken from the water, the animal 
jelly soon dries up and crumbles to pieces. That which 
we call sponge is the frame-work, or soft bones of the 
animal. 

The inhabitants who live near the water where sponges 
grow are taught to dive for the sponge when they are 
children. They learn to remain under the water from 
one to two minutes at a time, pulling the sponges from 
the rocks, that they may bring them up to the surface 
and take them on shore. 



WATER. 

Talk with the children about what they can do with 
vKiter ; also about the uses which people make of it, as 
for drinJcing^ cooking^ washing^ etc. Lead them to ob- 
serve and tell how it looks, as deai\ transparent ; also 
that it is cool, tasteless, colorless, and inodorous — it 
has no smell; that it ^Yi^\flo^o in droj^s and z^e^, conse- 
quently is a liquid; that it can not be gathered up 
again when spilled ; that it soaks into the ground, or 
dries up. 

Lead the pupils also to observe how the water comes 
from the clouds as ixiin ; that some of it soaks into the 
* Hoiv the Sponje grows is from " The Observing Eye." 



384 TEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

ground, and some of it runs away in little streams and 
flows into rivers ; that the rivers flow into the sea. 
Also that water flows from springs^ that the streams 
from several springs unite and form a river. 

Lead them also to observe that water will turn into 
vap)or or steam by heat, and become hard by cold ; that 
it is useful to move machinery and warm our houses 
when in the form of steam ; and valuable as ice in pre- 
serving various kinds of food during warm weather. 

At the close of the lesson, the outline on tlie black- 
board will appear somewhat as follows, viz. : 

WATER. 

Qualities. Uses. Where Obtained. 

Transparent. Drinking. From clouds, as rain. 

Tasteless. Cooking. " the ground, as springs 

Colorless. Washing. and wells. 

Inodorous. Moving machinery and " streams. 

Liquid. warming houses. ' ' ponds and lakes. 

Will evaporate. Preserving food in summer. 
" Freeze. 

It is the most useful liquid, hence God provides it 
most abundantly. 



MILK. 

A lesson may be given on milk in a manner similar 
to the one on water. During this lesson these two 
liquids should be compared. The exercise on Milk 
should lead the children to consider the following prop- 
erties, which may be written on the blackboard as 
each one is talked about durino: the lesson : 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 



385 



MILK. 



Properties. 


Uses. ■ 




Where Obtained. 


White. 


Making cheese. 




From cows; also from 


Opaque. 


" butter. 




goats, in Switzerland ; 


Liquid. 


Cooking. 




from reindeer, in cold 


Sweet. 


Drinking, 




countries ; from cam- 


Nutritious. 


Food for young 


animals. 


els, in hot countries. 



GLASS. 

Taking pieces of window-glass, and a tumbler, and 
other kinds of glass, the teacher may lead the children 
to notice the principal qualities and uses of glass in a 
manner similar to that pursued in teaching transparency 
in the lessons on Qualities. Experiments may be had 
with the glass, and the pupils allowed to feel of it, and 
look through it, etc. Afterward questions should be 
asked somewhat like the following, to lead the pupils to 
consider all the important properties and uses of this 
material. 

Who will tell me something about glass ? " We can 
see through it." 

What word means can be seen through 9 " Transpa- 
rent." 

What else can you tell me about glass ? " It will 
break easily." 

What word means icill break easily f " Brittle." 

What else can you say about it ? " It is smooth." 
"It is thin." 

How do you know it is smooth and thin ? " By feel- 
ing of it." 

Who can tell more about glass ? -" It is used in win- 
dows." 



386 



PRIMABY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Why do we put glass in windows ? " So we can see 
through." 

Suj^pose there were no windows in this room, could 
you see what is in it ? *' No." 

What then must be in the room to enable you to see 
in it? "Light." 

How does the light get in this room? "It comes 
through the glass in the window." 

Then for what other purpose is glass used in win- 
dows besides seeing through? "To let the light in." 

Can you see through the door when it is closed ? Can 
you see through the blackboard ? 

What is made of glass? "Tumblers; "Dishes;" 
"Bottles;" "Beads;" "Mirrors;" "Inkstands." 

You have examined these pieces of glass, now you 
may tell me the names of the different kinds. " Win- 
dow-glass;" "Flint-glass;" "Bottle-glass;" "Stained 
glass." 

Which is the flint-glass ? " The white, clear glass of 
which goblets are made." 

For what is stained glass iTsed ? " For church Avin- 
dows." 

When the exercise is finished, the blackboard will con- 
tain an outline of the lesson somewhat as follows : 

GLASS. 



qualities. 


Uses. 




Kinds. 


Hoiv Made. 


Transparent. 


Windows. 




Window. 


Some kinds by melt- 


Brittle. 


Tumblers 




Plate. 


ing sand and pot- 


Smooth. 


Dishes, 




Flint. 


ash together. 


Colorless. 


Bottles. 




Bottle. 




Stained. 


Mirrors. 
Watch crysti 
Inkstands. 


als. 


Stained. 





LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 387 



WOOL. 



What have I in my hand ? " Some wool." 

Where does wool come from? "It comes from the 
back of sheep." 

How is the wool obtained from the sheep? "It is 
cut off with large shears." 

When is it cut off? "When the weather becomes 
warm in the beginning of summer." 

What is done with the sheep before the wool is 
sheared from them ? " They are taken into a stream 
of water, or into a large tub into which clean water 
runs, and the wool is washed." 

Who can tell me of what use wool is to the sheep? 
"To keep them warm." 

Yes, wool is the sheep's clothing. Can the sheep 
make its own clothing ? " No." 

Who gives the sheep their clothing ? " God ; He 
makes the wool grow." 

After the children have felt of a piece of wool, ask, 
How does the wool feel? "Soft." "Warm." 

Because avooI is soft and warm, it is very useful for 
clothing, for it prevents the warmth of the body from 
passing away, and thus it keeps us warm. 

Here is a little water in this basin. I will place some 
wool in it. What do you observe ? " The water has 
disappeared ; the wool has sucked it up." 

What did we say of the sponge when we found that 
it would suck up water? "That it is an ahsorhenV 
What, then, may we say of wool ? " It is an ahsorhenV 

Why do we call any thing an absorbent f " Because 
it sucks up water or other liquids." 



388 



PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Squeeze the wool and then let go of it. What do 
you observe ? " It is elastic.'^'' 

What is the color of wool ? " White." 

Did you ever see a black sheep ? For what is wool 
used ? " For making cloth for coats, pantaloons, vests, 
and cloaks ; for flannel, blankets, shawls, carpets, stock- 
ings, hats, etc." 

What is done with the wool when cloth is made of 
it ? " It is spun into yarn, and the yarn is woven into 
cloth."* 

You may now read what has been written about wool 
on the blackboard : 





WOO] 


L. 


Qualities. 


Uses. 


Where, when, and how Obtained. 


Soft. 


Cloth for clothing. 


From sheep, when the warm 


Warm. 


Shawls. 


weather begins, after wash- 


Absorbent. 


CaiT^ets. 


ing them, by shearing. 


Elastic. 


Blankets. 
Hats, etc. 





SALT. 

This substance may be presented by observation, ex- 
periment, and conversation, and the children led to con- 
sider the following qualities, uses, kinds, etc. 

Qualities. — Saline^ soluble, granular, sparMing, hard, 
ichite. 



* The extent to which the teacher should lead the pupils to consider 
and describe the processes of manufacture of woolen goods must de- 
pend upon their age and their familiarity with the process employed. 
In a toAvn where woolen goods are manufactured, it would be proper 
to extend this subject with the older pupils, so as to include the vari- 
ous processes of the manufacture of woolen goods. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 389 

Kinds. — Rock salt^ coarse salt^fine or table salt, hay or 
sea salt. 

Uses. — Seasoning food, preserving meat, glazing earth- 
enioare, manure, for animals. It is necessary to liealth 
and life. 

Where and how Obtained. — Eoch salt is dug from salt 
mines in the earth. The salt used in the United States 
is obtained chiefly from springs and wells of salt water. 
Coarse salt is made by evaporating the water in shal- 
low vats, or tanks, by the heat of the sun. Fine or ta- 
ble salt is made by boiling the brine in large iron kettles. 
The most extensive salt-works in this country are at 
Syracuse, New York. 



SUGAR. 

Proceed with this substance as with salt ; show speci- 
mens of it, experiment with it, talk about it, and con- 
sider the following properties, uses, etc. : 

Qualities. — Sweet, soluble,fusible, sparkling, crumbling, 
brittle, nutritious. 

Kinds. — Broion sugar, loaf sugar, poii^dered sugar, 
crushed sugar, maple sugar. 

Uses. — To sweeten food and drinks, as cake, pie, pud- 
ding, tea, coffee, etc. To preserve fruit. 

From what Obtained. — Chiefly from sugar-cane ; some 
from maple-trees. It may be obtained from some kinds 
of beets ; also from sorghum. 



GLUE. 

By suitable observation and experiments, lead the 
children to consider the folio win <?: 



390 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Qualities. — Hard^ soluble in hot loater^ sticky or ad- 
hesive^ tenacious^ hrown color. 

Uses. — To join pieces of wood together^ to hind hooks. 
A weak solution of glue, called size, is used in white- 
wash to prevent it from rubbing off. Glue is used by- 
carpenters, cabinet-makers, etc. 

Where Obtained. — From hoofs and skins of animals. 
Some fine kinds are obtained from parts of fish. 

Kinds. — Gelatine is a kind of refined glue, used in 
cooking. Isinglass is the finest kind of glue, obtained 
from the air-bladders offish, and is used for jellies, etc. 

GUM ARABIC. 

Qualities. — 8en%i-tra7ispare7it, hard, soluble, adhesive, 
yelloioish color, inodorous, insipid taste. 

Uses. — For sticking thin articles, as postage-stamps, 
envelopes, etc. ; for mucilage ; for making ink ; for 
stiffening crape, ho7inets of straw, etc. 

Where Obtained. — From the acacia-tree, which grows 
in sandy regions in the East Indies and in Africa. It 
is the gum of the tree, and oozes out of the bark during 
the hot weather, as gum oozes out of the plum, cherry, 
and j)each trees in this country. It becomes hard by 
exposure to the air. 

CORK. 

Qualities. — Light, soft, compressible, elastic, inflam- 
mable. 

Uses. . — Stoppers for bottles, life-preservers, floats for 
fish-nets, inner soles of shoes, etc. 

What it is and where Obtained. — Cork is the outer 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 391* 

bark of an evergreen-tree that resembles a kind of oak. 
The cork-tree grows in Spain, Portugal, southern part 
of France, in . Italy, and the northern part of Africa. 
This tree lives to a great age. When fifteen or twenty 
years old, it is customary to commence peeling off the 
outer bark. This is done in July or August. The bark 
is cut lengthwise of the tree, and a blunt instrument in- 
serted under the bark to j)eel it off. Care is taken not 
to injure the inner bark. The outer bark may be re- 
moved once in six or eight years. The bark is slightly 
charred on one side, then pressed out flat. It is cut up 
for stoppers of bottles, and other uses, by hand, with a 
sharp, thin knife. This knife is sharpened on a board 
by one whet or stroke on each side of it after every 
cut. It must also be frequently sharpened on a stone. 
Corks for bottles are cut lengthwise of the bark, so that 
the pores will all extend across the cork. 

Other Objects. — Lessons may also be given, during 
the second stage, on the following objects : 

India-rubber. Coal. 

Blotting-paper. Wax. 

Blackboard crayon. Putty. 

Whalebone. Alum. 

Honey. Starch. 

Honey-comb. Bread. 



392 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 

THIRD STAGE. 

Suggestions for Teachers. — During the lessons in this stage 
of training, the pupils may be led to analyze objects more completely, 
and to consider their adaptation to the purposes for which they are 
commonly used. 

The examination of the several objects, and the observation of their 
various properties, should be performed by the children as far as pos- 
sible. Lead them to notice the qualities, but do not tell the pupils of 
the existence of those which they can readily discover. 

Only a few lessons will be drawn out in this stage, to suggest the 
general plans of giving them. Other objects will be mentioned, with 
their most prominent qualities, leaving the teachers to supply the ex- 
ercises in experimenting, talking about the object, and questions for 
the pupils relative to its qualities, uses, etc. 



LEATHER. 

Children, you may tell me what I hold in my hand. 
"Pieces of leather." 

You may look at these pieces of leather, and feel of 
them, and then tell me what you observe. " One side is 
black, and the other is a light brown." " It is smooth." 

Is it smooth on both sides? "The black side is 
smoother than the brown side." " Some are yellow." 
" Some pieces are red." " Some are white." 

What can you do with it? "Bend it — it \^flexibleP . 
Why do you say it is flexible f " Because it may be 
easily bent." 

What could you do with paper ? " Tear it." Try 
to tear the leather. "We can not tear it." Why? 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 393 

"Because it is tough." When do you say a thing is 
tougli f " When it can not be torn easily." 

You say this leather is smooth^ flexible^ and tough ; 
take it between your thumb and finger, and see if you 
can observe any thing more of it. " It is thin." " It 
is light." 

How did you discover that leather is smooth, flexi- 
ble^ toiigh^ thin, and light f " By feeling it." 

Now shut your eyes. What is near your face? 
"Leather." 

Did you see the leather while I held it near your 
nose ? " No." How, then, did you know that I held it 
there ? " We could smell it." 

What, then, may you say of leather ? " Jt has a 
smell." What do we say of any thing that has a smell ? 
" It is odorous.'''' 

What, then, may ^YQ say of leather? "It is odorous." 

How did you find out that leather is odorous ? 

How did you find out the color of the leather ? " By 
looking at it." 

What qualities did you find out by feeling ? 

For what is leather used? Are you wearing any 
thing made of leather ? Why is leather good for shoes ? 
"It is tough." 

Can you think of any other reason why it is good 
for shoes ? " It is flexible." " It is thin and light." 

Pai^er is thin and light ; why would it not make good 
shoes ? " It would not keep out water." 

Now we have found out a very imi^ortant reason 
why leather is good for shoes : it keeps the water from 
our feet. Because it will keep out water so well, we 
say it is water-proof. 

Who will now tell me several reasons why leather is 
R2 



394 



PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 



good for shoes? "Because it is tough^ flexible, thin, 
light, and water-proof.'''' 

Observe this piece of leather when I put it in the fire. 
" It frizzles up." " It has a very unpleasant odor." 

Do you remember what happened when I j)ut the 
paper in the fire ? " It was soon burnt up." 

That, you remember, was made from a vegetable — 
a plant. Leather is an animal substance, and when it 
burns it frizzles up and gives out a disagreeable odor. 

Who can tell me where we get leather? Is it dug 
from the ground? " No; it is the skin of an animal." 

Can you mention some animals, the skins of which 
are used for leather ? " The cow, the calf, the horse, 
the sheep, the dog, the hog." 

Does the skin of either of those animals look like this 
leather? What is the difference? "Their skins are 
covered with hair." 

What must be done to them in making leather? 
" The hair must be scraped off, and the skin tanned." 

After talking with the children about the process of 
tanning leather, and the several kinds that are made, 
the teacher may require the pupils to read what has 
been written on the blackboard during the lesson : 







LEATHER. 




KiiyAs. 


Qualities. 


Uses. 


JEoiv Obtained. 


Upper, 


Smooth. 


Boots. 


From the skins of the 


Sole. 


Various colors. 


Shoes. 


cow, ox, horse, calf, 


Calfskin. 


Flexible. 


Gloves. 


goat, sheep, hog, 


Cowhide. 


Tough. 


Harness. 


and other animals, 


Morocco. 


Thin. 


Reins. 


Avhich are tanned 


Kid. 


Light. 


Saddles. 


with an astringent 


Harness. 


Odorous. 


Trunks. 


bark, then dressed 


Chamois. 


Water-proof. 


Pocket-books. 


and colored for use. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 395 



WIND. 



Sometimes we hear a low, roaring sound out of doors ; 
sometimes a whistling sound ; sometimes the windows 
rattle, and the shutters slam, and the limbs of the trees 
move back and forth, and the leaves rustle. Can you 
tell me the cause of these sounds and niovements? 
*' The wind." 

Did you ever see wind ? 

You can not see wind, and how do you know that it 
is the wind that makes these sounds, and causes the 
leaves of trees to move ? " We can hear it." " We 
can feel it." 

How do you feel wind ? *' We feel it move." 

What is wind ? Can you tell me what air is ? 
" Something that we breathe." 

Yery good. Wiiid is air in motion. 

What Wind does. — Who can tell me what wind does ? 
"Moves trees." "Rustles leaves." "Makes clouds 
move." " Makes kites fly." "Makes ships sail." "Whis- 
tles." " Throws dust in our eyes." " Blows hats ofi*." 
" Blows down signs." " Breaks umbrellas," etc. 

Kinds of Wind. — Sometimes the air is so quiet that 
we can not feel it move, then we say it is a calm. 

Did you ever feel a gentle wind? That is called a 
breeze. 

Did you ever feel the wind blowing so strongly that 
it carried away hats, and made it hard to walk ? What 
would you call such a wind ? " ^ strong loind.'''' " A 
hard wind.'''' " A high loind." 

Yery good. Such strong winds sometimes do great 
damage to ships. 



396 



PEniAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



Did you ever hear of a violent storm of wind that 
tore down barns, and houses, and fences, and trees? 
Such a wind is called a hurricane. 

Did you ever have a whirling wind lift your hat from 
your head and whirl it up in the air along with dust 
from the street? What would you call such a wind? 
" A whirlwi7idP 

Sometimes whirlwinds are very violent, and move rap- 
idly, and destroy all that comes in their way. These 
are called toriiadoes. 

Winds often do much damage, yet they are very use- 
ful. They move the clouds to bring us rain ; they move 
ships across the lakes and over the sea; they dry our 
clothes, and dry the mud in the roads ; they help to 
ripen grain ; they purify the air ; they scatter seeds ; 
they cool the air. 

You may now read what I have written on the black- 
board about 





WIND. 


It is 


air in motion. 


What it does. 


Kinds of Wind. 


Moves the leaves of trees, 


No wind — calm. 


grass, and grain. 


Light " — hreeze. 


Makes kites fly, ships sail. 


Hard " — strong wind. 


clouds move, waves dash 


Violent " — hurricane. 


on shore. 


Whirling " — whirlwind. 


It whistles, blows hats off, 


Rapidly whirling " —tornado. 


breaks umbrellas, and 




blows down signs, build- 




ings, and trees. 




Winds are useful in many ways— to bring rain, cool the air, purify 


the air, move ships, diy our clothes, etc. 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 



397 



WAFERS. 

Show the children wafers of various sizes and colors. 
Lead them to notice their lightness, brittleness, shape, 
color, adhesiveness when wet, etc. Then they may be 
requested to find out and tell their uses. Afterward 
the teacher may tell the pupils that wafers are rtiade of 
a thill paste of flour and water, and colored with paint ; 
that the paste is poured into smooth iron pans which 
shut together something like waffle-irons, but so closely 
as to press the paste into very thin sheets ; these wafer- 
pans are then held over a charcoal fire, and thep>aste is 
baJced in them. The pans are greased before the paste 
is poured in to keep the wafer from sticking. Several 
of these large loafer sheets are placed in a pile, and the 
wafers are cut out vnth circular punches. Illustrate the 
process of cutting by talking with the children about 
cutting dough into cakes with a cake-cutter, or a punch 
for cutting holes in leather or tin. 

Tell them that the paint used for coloring is poison- 
ous ; hence we must not eat wafers, nor hold them in 
the mouth. 

When the lesson is finished, the blackboard may con- 
tain something like the following : 



Slwpe and Qualities. 
Circular, Thin. 
Smooth. Glossy. 
Brittle. Adhesive. 
Of various colors. 
Poisonous. 



WAFEES. 

Uses. 
Fastening letters ; also 
for seals after names 
of persons signed to 
deeds and other le- 
gal documents. 



How Made. 
Made of thin flour 
paste, colored with 
paint; pressed and 
baked in smooth iron 
pans ; cut out with 
circular punches. 



398 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LEAD. 

Show the children pieces of lead in sheets, bars, pipe, 
bullets, etc. By experiments, lead them to observe its 
properties ; and talk with them about its uses, w^here 
found, how obtained, and tell them such facts as they 
can not readily ascertain. Afterward the pupils may 
be required to tell all they can about lead, under the 
guidance of the teacher, and the names of the several 
properties, uses, etc., may be written on the blackboard 
as they are observed and described by the pupils. Care 
should be taken not to allow one or two pupils to do 
all the talking ; encourage each one to tell something 
about the lesson. 

What can you say about lead. " It is heavy. I know 
this by lifting it." " It will sink in water. I know this 
by experimenting." " It is soft. I knoAV this because 
it is easily cut, or scratched, or dented ; also because it 
will mark on paper." "It is softer than any other 
metal." "It y^ pliable. I know this because it is easily 
bent." "It Infusible. I know this because it melts in 
fire." " It is malleable. I know this because it can be 
made into thin sheets by pounding it." 

For what is lead used ? " For water-pipes." " Bullets 
and shot." " Lining tea chests." " For solder, by mix- 
ing it with tin." " On roofs of houses, for gutters, etc." 

Where is lead obtained? "From lead mines in the 
earth." What is it called when dug out of the earth ? 
" Lead ore." " It is smelted in furnaces, to separate it 
from the earth." 

What are those called who work with lead ? " Plumb- 
ers." 



LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 399 

The princiiDal facts of the lesson should be read from 
the blackboard by the pupils. 

Similar lessons may be given on iro7i^ copper^ silvej% 
gold, etc. 

Iron.' — Qualities. — Hard, ductile, tenacious, mallea- 
ble, fusible, heavy. Uses. — For stoves ; cooking uten- 
sils ; made into steel for knives, and forks, and tools ; 
used for railroads, car-wheels, wagons, houses, bridges, 
boats, etc. Where found. — In the earth. Called ore. 
Smelted in large furnaces. Fire very hot. 

Iron, when converted into steel, exceeds in hardness other metals. 
It is more ductile than gold, and may be drawn into a wire as fine as 
human hair. It is the most tenacious of the metals ; a wire of one 
tenth of an inch in diameter will support 550 pounds. In the state 
of steel it is the most elastic of metals. It is also the most useful of 
metals. 

Copper. — Heavy, tenacious, sonorous, fusible, ductile, 
malleable, poisonous. 

It is eight times heavier than water. A wire one tenth of an inch 
in thickness will support 300 pounds. It is the most deeply sonorous 
of all the metals. It is more easily melted than iron. It is used for 
printing pictures ; for printing cahco ; for makipg brass, by mixing 
zinc with it ; for bronze, by mixing tin with it ; for making bells, 
gongs, etc. 

Silver. — Heavy, ductile, malleable, tenacious, fusible, 
brilliant, reflective, not aftected by common acids. 

Silver is about eleven times heavier than water. It can be drawn 
into the finest wire. It can be reduced to an extreme thinness. A 
wire of silver one tenth of an inch in thickness will support 200 pounds. 

Gold. — Heavy, malleable, ductile, tenacious, fusible, 
brilliant. 

Gold is considered a perfect metal, because it does not change nor 



400 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

lose any of its weight when melted. It is nineteen times heavier than 
water. It is the most malleable of metals : a piece of gold of the size 
of a pin's head may be hammered out so as to cover a space of fifty 
square inches. It is so ductile that one dollar can be drawn out into 
a wire that will reach nearly two miles. Its tenacity is much less than 
that of iron. A wire one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 
160 pounds. 

Other Lessons on Objects may be given during this stage 
upon Whalebone, India-rubber, Camphor, Cotton, Linen, Silk, Mirror, 
Snow and Ice, Brass, etc. 

The teacher may also write on the blackboard the following heads, 
and the pupils be required to ascertain and give appropriate informa- 
tion to be written under each, as : 

What may be seen in a farm-yard. Materials used for building. 
Materials used for furniture. Tools used by a carpenter. Tools used 
by a shoemaker. What may be bought at a hardware store. How to 
air the house. 

Things made of iron. Things made of wood. Things made of 
leather. Things made of glass. Things made of India-rubber. 
Things made of wool. 

What farmers plant. What farmers sow. Grains that farmers 
raise. Kinds of fruits. Kinds of nuts. Kinds of vegetables that 
we eat. 



HUMAN BODY. 



'A healthful body and a vigorous mind, 
A countenance serene, expanded chest, 
Heroic stature, and a temperate tongue." 



An examination of the Human Body ever awakens 
feelings of wonder in each observer, as it did when the 
divine psalmist exclaimed, " I am fearfully and wonder- 
fully made." One of the most curious and remarkable 
things in the world is the house that each human being 
lives in — the hody. A knowledge of its frame-work, its 
parts, the uses of each, and how to keep it in good con- 
dition, is of the greatest importance to every one, and 
especially so to the young. 

When lessons on the Human Body are properly pre- 
sented, it becomes not only an appropriate object of ex- 
amination and study for children, but one of the most 
important and interesting subjects that claim their at- 
tention. These lessons are valuable for leading chil- 
dren to habits of taking a proper care of their bodies, as 
well as for the knowledge which they impart, as a foun- 
dation for a subsequent study of physiology. 

These lessons will furnish suitable opportunities for 
correcting any vague and imperfect notions which chil- 
dren may have acquired about their bodies, and for giv- 
ing them suitable terms for description; also for pre- 
paring them to understand many wonderful details in 
the modification and adaptation of the organs of ani- 



402 rPvIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

mals to their peculiar habits, propensities, and locali- 
ties. 

The summaries given in the following exercises, which 
appear in smaller type, are intended to be repeated by 
the pupils, to aid them in remembering the facts taught 
in the several lessons on the Human Body; but in no 
case should a summary be presented to the pupils be- 
fore they have been taught the facts which it contains 
by a training exercise. 

It is just that I should state that these summaries 
were prepared, nearly as given here, by Miss [Margaeet 
W. Lewis, the teacher for object lessons in the Primary 
Department of School No. 49, in this city, for the classes 
of that school. The success of these lessons, as given 
by Miss Lewis during the past two years to some two 
thousand children, between the ages of six and ten 
years, led me to make arrangements with her to incor- 
porate the summaries into a series of training lessons 
on the Human Body, in place of those given in the for- 
mer editions of this work. Miss Lewis also furnished 
some of the material for the training lesions. I trust 
that these exercises can be readily given by teachers, 
and that they will be found interesting and profitable. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 403 



TRAINING LESSONS ON 

THE HUMAN BODY. 

FIRST EXERCISE. 

The Human Body as a Whole. — The lessons on the 
Human Body may be introduced by means of conver- 
sations about our bodies — those of children and of 
grown persons ; what children can do ; what men and 
women can do ; also about houses as places to live in ; 
then about the body as the house of the soul. 

Talk about the building of houses, their frames, and 
coverings. Afterward request the children to feel of 
the face, arms, etc., and then tell of what their bodies 
are built. Some will probably say, " Of bones." 

What covers the bones ? " Flesh." 

What covers the flesh ? " Skin." 

Of what, then, may you say the frame of your body 
is built? "Of bones." 

With what is y.our body covered ? " With flesh and 
skin." 

You may say, 3Iy body is built ofbones^ covered icith 
flesh and sUn. I will print this on the blackboard, and 
you may read it. 

SECOND EXERCISE. 

Parts of the Body. — The teacher can best illustrate 
the principal parts of the body by showing a doll to the 
class. Let the pupils name and tell the position of the 
head, the neck, the body or trunk, the arms, the hands, 



404 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

the legs, and the feet, as each is pointed out by the 
teacher. An appropriate conversation should be had 
about these parts, and the children led to point out and 
name the same parts of their own bodies. 

One pupil may stand before the class, and point out 
each of these parts as the teacher names them. Then 
the class may name them as the pupil points them out 
in the same order as before. 

When a sufficient variety of exercises have been had, 
and the pupils can readily point out and name all of 
these parts, in order and out of order, and have learned 
to know their right and left hands, etc., the teacher may 
print on the blackboard, for the pupils to read, the fol- 
lowing : 

PARTS OF MY BODY. 

The parts of my body are my head, my neck, my trunl'-i my arms, 
my hands, my legs, mjfeet. 

As the children repeat the above, let them touch each 
part as it is named by them. 



THIRD EXERCISE. 

Breathing. — The teacher may take a deep, full breath, 
and request the children to stand up and imitate her. 
When they have repeated this several times, ask them 
what they have been doing. " Breathing" will be the 
answer of some. 

Do we breathe all the time ? " Yes." Do you breathe 
when you are asleep ? If the children can not answer, 
tell them to watch their baby brother or sister when it 
is asleep. If you should stop breathing, what would 
happen ? " We would die." 



THE HUMAN BODY. 405 

Now let the pupils repeat the full breathing, and lead 
their attention to the drawing in and throwiiig out of 
something, which they may feel by holding the hand 
before the mouth. Ask them what they call that which 
they feel blowing upon the hand ? Some of the chil- 
dren will say "Wind." Tell them that wind is only 
air moving. Also talk about air, and lead the children 
to understand that we take it into the body when we 
draw in the breath, and that we throw out the air again, 
then take in more, and so on. 

Now who can tell me what you breathe through? 
"The mouth." "The nose." 

You may hold your hand on your chest, between 
your arms, and take a full breath. Now where does 
the air go that you take in when you breathe? "In 
the trunk." "In my body." "In my chest." 

The teacher may now tell the pupils something about 
the windpipe and the lungs, and that the lungs are our 
breathing machines. When the pupils appear to under- 
stand these facts about breathing, they may be required 
to read the following from the blackboard : 

BKEATHING. 

I breathe through my nose and my mouthy and take the air into my 
lungs. 



FOURTH EXERCISE. 

The Blood. — Children, if you prick your finger, what 

will flow out? "Blood." 

If you cut your foot, what will flow from it ? "Blood. " 
If you scratch your face, what will flow from it? 

" Blood." 



406 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Where is the blood in your body ? " In all parts of 
it." "All through it." 

Where do you think the blood comes from ? " From 
the head," some may answer. 

'Now place your right hand on your left side. What 
do you feel ? " Something beats." " I feel my heart." 

Show me how it beats by moving your hand. 

Now tell the pupils that every time the heart beats 
it throws out blood, which passes through tree-like 
pipes or tubes to every part of the body. When does 
the blood flow through the body? "When the heart 
beats." 

Does the heart beat when we are asleep ? " It does 
not." "It does." 

Correct the error of those who think the heart does 
not beat while we sleep by leading them to understand 
what would happen to us should the heart stop beat- 
ing. The pupils may now read the summary from the 
blackboard : 

THE BLOOD. 
The blood flows through my body all the time from my heart. 

It will now be proper to talk about blood being made 
from our food and drink; of its flowing through the 
body, leaving something in every part of it to keep it 
alive and make it grow ; of its taking away the Avaste 
particles, and thus becoming impure, and needing to be 
changed or purified before it is fit to go through the 
body again. Tell the pupils that the impure blood goes 
into the lungs, and there meets the air that we breathe 
in, and that the air takes away the waste particles, and 
makes the blood pure, or freshens it, after which it re- 
turns to the heart, and is again sent all through the 



THE HUMAN BODY. 407 

body. Lead the children to understand the importance 
of eating wholesome food and breathing pure air, that 
the blood may be in a good condition for building up 
the body. 

Now the summaries of the four exercises may be 
placed on the blackboard, and repeated by the pupils, 
each one touching the parts mentioned. The whole 
subject may also be reviewed by questions ; 

ABOUT MY BODY. 

My body is built of hones, covered with flesh and shin. The parts 
of my body are my head, my trunk, my arms, my hands, my legs, my 
feet. I breathe through my nose and my mouth, and take the air into 
my lungs. The blood flows through my body all the time from my 
heart. 



FIFTH EXERCISE. 

Head and its Parts. — Talk with the children about 
the head and its parts ; where it is ; its shape ; what 
we do with it ; what it is covered with ; where the face 
is ; which part we see most ; where the ears are ; what 
the top of the head is called; about the nose, mouth, 
etc. ; and let the pupils touch each part as it is talked 
about. 

"When the pupils have become familiar with the parts 
of the head, they may learn to repeat the following 
summary from the blackboard, at the same time touch- 
ing each part mentioned : 

THE HEAD. 

The parts of my head are the crown, the back, the sides, my face, 
and my two ears. 



408 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



SIXTH EXERCISE. 

Face and its Parts. — Talk with the children about 
the face and its parts ; its shape, round, or oval, narrow 
part lowest down ; the forehead, the highest part of the 
face ; the temples on each side of the head, in front of 
the ears ; the eyes below the forehead, each side of the 
nose ; the nose in the middle of the face, long up and 
down ; the cheeks are each side of the face, soft and 
smooth; the mouth below the nose; the chin below 
the mouth, the lowest part of the face, pointed, some- 
times has a little hollow in it called a dimple. Teach 
the children that the face tells many things about us — 
when we feel happy, when we feel sad, when we feel 
ashamed, when we are good, and when naughty. 

Neck and Throat. — Talk with the pupils about the 
neck, to join the head to the body; its shape; how it 
can bend, and turn; the back of the neck, and the 
throat ; that the throat contains the windpipe and the 
food passage, etc. 

Let the pupils now learn the following summary from 
the blackboard, and touch each part mentioned : 

FACE AND NECK. 

The parts of my face are mj forehead, my two temples, my two eyes, 
my nose, my two cheeks, my mouth, and my chin. The parts of my 
neck are the hack of my neck, and my throat. 



SEVENTH EXERCISE. 

Trunk and its Parts. — Talk with the pupils about the 
back, its position, how it will bend ; about the sides ; 



THE HUMAN BODY. 409 

about the chest, its use ; the shoulders, and their posi- 
tion on the sides of the trunk at the top; the arms, 
joined to each shoulder; the hands, at the end of each 
arm ; the legs, as two props on which the trunk rests, 
and which keep it up from the ground ; the knees, at 
the middle of each leg; the feet, at the end of each leg, 
to enable us to stand. When the pupils have learned 
the position and names of these parts, they may learn 
the following summary from the blackboard, and touch 
each part : 

TEUNK. 

The parts of my trunk are my hack, my two sides, my chest, my 
two shoulders, my two arms, my two hands, my two legs, my two knees, 
my two feet ; and now I am sitting erect. 



EIGHTH EXERCISE. 

Arms and the Parts. — Talk with the children about 
the arm, its use for reaching things ; lead them to no- 
tice its two parts joined at the elbow, and why it is 
better to have two parts than one, by illustrating the 
movements of the arm without bendinsj it at the elbow. 

Request the children to bend their wrist and elbow 
joints in every possible direction. Show them the 
hinges on a box, or shutter, or door, and let them com- 
pare the movements of their elbow and wrist joints with 
those of the hinges ; then request them to tell what 
name may be given to these joints. Some children will 
say " Hinge-joint." 

NoAV let the children move the arm at the shoulder ; 
tell them that the end of the upper arm is rounded like 
a ball, and that it fits into a hollow place or cup. Then 
ask. What name may be given to the joint at the shoul- 

S 



410 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

der? "Ball and cup joint" some will say. Tell them 
we call it a hall and socket joint. 

The pupils may now learn the following summary 
from the blackboard : 

ARM. 

My arm has two parts and three joints ; my upper-arm and ray fore- 
arm ; my shoulder-]omi, my elbow-^oint, my wrist-]oi\\t. 



NINTH EXERCISE. 

Hand and its Parts. — Talk about the hand, and its 
uses for liolding^ throioing, catching^ liftmg^ pulling^ and 
feeling y about using one hand more than the other; 
about the parts of the hand — the back of the hand, where 
the knuckles are ; the palm of the hand, inside ; of the 
lingers, naming each ; of the thumb, showing how it can 
touch each of the fingers; of the joints, and number in 
the thumb and in each finger ; the nails ; veins ; tips 
of the fingers ; the ball of the thumb ; and the lines 
where the flesh is bent. Compare the skin with the 
tight-fitting glove, and inquire why it would not be as 
well to have the flesh drawn tightly over the bones ; 
also talk about the importance of clean hands and clean 
nails. The pupils may now learn the summary for the 

HAND. 

My hand is used in holding, throwing, catching, lifting, pulling, and 
feeling. The pa^m of my hand.* The 6ac^ of my hand. Mj fingers, 
my thumb, ray forefinger, my middle finger, my ring-finger, my little 
finger. My knuckles, nxj finger-joints, my nails. The tips of my 
fingers, the veins, the hall of my thumb, and the lines where the flesh 
is bent. 

* As this is spoken the children clap their hands. They also touch 
each part as it is mentioned by them. 



THE HUMAN BODY. 411 



TENTH EXERCISE. 



Leg and its Parts. — Talk about the parts of the leg, 
and their uses when standing, walking, running, jump- 
ing, and sitting ; of their position, shape, etc. ; of the 
thigh, the upper part nearest the body ; of the knee, 
joining the thigh to the lower leg ; of the knee-pan — its 
uses ; of the lower leg with two bones ; of the hip-joint 
— a ball and socket joint ; the knee-joint ; and the an- 
kle. Let the pupils now learn the summary of the 



LEG. 



My leg has two parts and three joints. My thigli, and my lower leg. 
My hijj-joint, my knee-joint, my ankle-joint. 



ELEVENTH EXERCISE. 

Foot and the Parts. — Talk with the children about 
the uses of the foot for standing, walking, running, 
jumping, and skating; about the instep, the part in 
front of the ankle, top of the foot ; the toes, their num- 
ber, names, etc. ; the sole, the bottom part ; the ball, 
the part on which the foot rests; the a7xh, or hollow, 
the part between the ball and heel ; the use of the toe- 
nails, to protect the toes, etc. These parts may be il- 
lustrated by showing a shoe. 

The summary of the lesson may now be learned : 

FOOT. 
My foot is used in standing, walking, running, jumping, and skat- 
ing. My instep, my toes, the sole of my foot, the ball, the hollow, ray 
heel, my toe-joints, and my toe-nails, which protect my toes. 



412 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



TWELFTH EXERCISE. 

Review. — At this stage the teacher should carefully 
review the exercises on the A7*ms, Hand^ Leg^ JFoot, and 
their parts, by questions, etc. 

Afterward the pupils may be taught to repeat the 
following 

SUMMARY OF THE LIMBS. 

My arm has two parts and three joints ; my upper arm, and my 
fore-arm ; my shoulder-joint, my elbow-joint, my wrist-joint. 

My hand is used in holding, throwing, catching, lifting, pulling, and 
feeling. The palm of my hand, the bach of my hand. My fingers, 
my thumb, my forefinger, my middle finger, my ring-finger, my little 
finger. My knuckles, my finger-joints, my nails. The tips of my 
fingers, the veins, the ball of my thumb, and the lines Mhere the flesh 
is bent. 

My leg has two parts and three joints. My tliigh, and my lower leg. 
My hip-joint, my knee-joint, my ankle-joint. 

My foot is used in standing, walking, running, jumping, and skat- 
ing. My instep, my toes ; the sole of my foot, the ball, the hollow ; 
my heel, my toe-joints, and my toe-nails, which protect my toes. 

Suggestions for Teachers. — In each of these exei-cises, it should 
be distinctly understood that in the conversations had with the pupils, 
the teacher should lead the children to observe and tell as much as 
possible about the subject under consideration. The point or fact 
which they should be led to notice is only briefly given in the exercise ; 
the teacher should lead the pupils to perceive these facts by conversa- 
tions and questions. Sometimes the several parts of the summary 
may be written on the blackboard as the lesson proceeds ; but in some 
of the exercises it may be found necessaiy to talk about each fact, and 
then review all by leading the pupils to tell what may be written on 
the blackboard about the lesson, 

N. B. — The twelve preceding exercises may be completed before 
the children finish reading in the Primer, or first reading-book. 



BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 413 



LESSONS ABOUT THE 

BONES OF THE HUMAN" BODY. 

FIRST EXERCISE. 

Names, Shape, and Number of Bones. — Let the chil- 
dren feel of their arms, hands, face, head, etc., and learn 
that all 25arts of the body do not feel alike ; that some 
are hard and some soft. Ask, What makes this differ- 
ence? "Bones." 

Let the children ascertain that there are hones in 
every i^art of the body — in the head, face, neck, shoul- 
ders, trunk, arms, hands, legs, feet ; also that the hones 
are not all in 07ie piece ; that in some parts of the body 
a great tnany small hones are joined together. Lead the 
pupils to observe that the hones are of different sizes 
and shape^ as the long bones of the legs and arms, the 
small bones of the hands, etc. That those of the skull 
are curved and cup-like ; those of the shoulders, flat ; 
those of the arm and legs, round like a cylinder. 

Tell the children that there are about two hundred 
hones in the whole hody^ besides the teeth ; that the face 
has fourteen hones ; the ear has four little hones., which 
are the smallest bones in the body ; that the root of the 
tongue has one hone. Let the pupils notice that the 
lower jaw is hinged to the skull, at the back part of the 
jaw. 

Bones of the Trunk. — The children may now touch 
the back-bone, and the teacher give them its name — 
spine., writing it on the blackboard. 

Li the same manner they may touch, and the teacher 



.414 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

give the name and write the Avorcl, as before, of the 
curved hones in the sides — ribs y the upright hone in 
front of the chest — hreast-hone ; the hones near the top 
of the hack — shoulder-hlades ; the ho7ies crossing from 
the hreast-hon'e to the shoidder-hlades — collar-hones. 
The pupils may now learn the summary of 

BONES IN HEAD AND TRUNK. 
My bones are hard ; they make my body strong, and keep it upright. 
There are more than two hundred bones in my body. The bones of 
my head are my skull^ my lower ^ aw. My face has fourteen bones. 
My ear has four small bones, and at the root of my tongue is one bone. 
The bones of my trunk are my spine, my ribs, my hreast-bone^ my two 
shoulder-blades, and my collar-bones. 



SECOND EXERCISE. 

Bones cf the Arm and Hand. — Lead the children to 
notice that there is only one bone in the upper arm ; 
that there are two bones in the /ore-arm/ eight bones 
ill the wrist j that from the wrist to the knuckles there 
are five bones in the hand ; two in the thumh ^ three 
ill each of the fingers, making nineteen bones in the 
hand. 

BONES OF ARM AND HAND. 

My upper arm has one bone ; raj fore-arm has two bones ; my wrist 
has eight bones ; f-om my wrist to my knuckles are five bones ; my 
thumb has two bones ; each Jinger has three bones, making nineteen 
bones in my hand. [Here let the pupils point to and count the bones 
of the hand, commencing at the thumb knuckle, and ending with the 
lower bone of the little finger.] 



BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 415 



THIRD EXERCISE. 

Bones of the Leg and Foot. — Tell the pupils of the one 
bone in the thigh^ which is the longest bone in the body ; 
of two bones in the loicer leg; of one bone over the 
^'/zee-joint, called the Jcnee-pan ; of seven bones, 7iear the 
heel, in the foot ; of five bones in the middle of the foot ; 
of two bones in the great toe; of three in each of the 
other toes ; and that the whole number of bones in the 
leg and foot is thirty. 

BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. 
My thigh has one bone ; my lower leg has two bones ; my hnee-pan 
is one bone ; in my foot, near my heel^ are seven bones ; in the middle 
of my foot are five bones. My great toe has two bones ; each of my 
other toes has three bones, making thirty bones in my leg and foot. 

Suggestions for the Teacher. — These exercises on the hones 
may be reviewed, and the several summaries taught together, as in the 
twelfth exercise. The lessons about the bones may be commenced 
before the pupils have finished their first reading-book. 



416 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



LESSONS ON THE 

OKGANS OF THE SENSES. 

FIRST EXERCISE. 

Introduction. — Talk with the children about the uses 
of windows and doors to a house ; also about the win- 
dows and doors to the tody — the house of the soul ; 
of the mouth, as the door for food and drink, and the 
taste of things to go in, and the voice to come out ; of 
the nose, as the door where the breath goes in and comes 
out, and where the smell of things goes in ; of the em\ 
as the door where sounds go in ; of the eyes^ as the win- 
dows where the soul looks out, and sees the beautiful 
things in the world ; of the eyelids^ as curtains for these 
windows. 

The Eyes. — Talk with the children about the uses of 
the eyes ; of their shape — round like a ball ; of their 
movements — as upward, downward, to the right, to the 
left. Illustrate the movements by requesting the chil- 
dren to hold their heads still and look down at the floor, 
then up at the ceiling, then to the right, then to the 
left of them. The teacher may look in this manner, and 
request the children to observe the movement of her 
eyes. Where children have an opportunity for observ- 
ing the eyes of fowls and birds, let them notice that 
their eyes are placed on the sides of their heads, and 
that they do not move them around as Ave do ours. 
Thus lead them to see that our eyes are placed in the 
very best position for us. 

By showing a cube, cone, cylinder, and sphere, lead 



ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 417 

the pupils to observe that the ball-shape is the best form 
for an eye. Tell them that the eyes are called eyeballs^ 
because they are round like balls ; also tell them of the 
great delicacy of the eye, and its need of protection. 
Lead them to notice how it is protected from injury by 
feeling of the forehead, the temples, the cheeks, and 
nose, thus observing that the eyes are placed in deep 
cups, or sockets of bones. 

Eyelids. — Let the children also notice and talk about 
the two eyelids^ that can be dravvn up and down like 
curtains, or some window-blinds, and thus protect the 
eyes by shutting out the light when it is too strong; 
also by covering them when we sleep, and keeping dust 
from getting into the eyes. 

Parts of the Eye. — To lead the children to observe 
the parts of the eye, let them look at each other's eyes, 
and notice the white of the eye, that part which is called 
the eyeball ; also the colored rmg inside the white, called 
the iris ; that the ring is not of the same color in all 
eyes ; also to notice the small circular spot^ like a hole, 
in the centre. Tell the children that this black, circu- 
lar spot is the part that we see with ; that it is called 
the pupil of the eye ; that the colored ring around the 
pupil is called the iris / that it is a curtain to close and 
open the pupil ; that when the sun shines brightly this 
curtain draws together around the pupil and leaves a 
very small spot uncovered, so that only a little light 
can get in; when we are in a room where there is but 
little light, this curtain opens and the pupil becomes 
large, so as to let in enough light to enable us to sec. 
Request the pupils to observe the eyes of cats in a light 
room, also in a dark room, and notice the difference in 
the size of the pupils of their eyes ; also the shape of 

S2 



418 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

their pupils. After the children have observed the cat's 
eyes, talk with them about the use of their having pu- 
pils that can be opened so wide as to enable them to 
see in the night. 



SECOND EXERCISE. 

The Tears. — The children may be told that the tears 
come into the eye-socket at the outer corner, and pass 
out at the inner corner of the eye into the nose ; that 
sometimes the tears flow into the eyes so fast that they 
can not all pass out through the small opening into the 
nose ; then they run over the eyelids, and fall on the 
cheeks. Did your tears ever run over the eyelids? 
What made them do so ? 

To lead the children to understand the use of tears, 
talk with them about their mother using oil on her 
sewing-machine. Why does she use the oil on the ma- 
chine ? " To make it go easily." " To keep it clean." 
" To keep it from wearing out." 

We are moving our eyes about nearly all the time, 
and they keep clean, and move easily, and do not seem 
to wear out by rubbing against the sockets. Can you 
tell me what washes your eyes, and oils them so that 
they move easily, and do not wear out ? " The tears." 

Yes, the tears keep the eye moist, and the eyelids 
wash it like a soft sponge. 

Eyelashes. — Let the children notice the hair-fringes 
along the edge of the eyelids, called the eyelashes ; tell 
them that these help to keep out the dust by brushing 
it away when we wink; that they also help to shield 
the eye from strong light ; and they make the eye more 
beautiful. 



ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 419 

Eyebrows. — The pupils may observe the arches of 
hair, called eyebroios^ which project over the eyes some- 
what like the eaves of a house ; and notice their crescent- 
like shape. Tell the pupils that these help to keep the 
perspiration which rolls down the forehead from get- 
ting into the eyes ; that the eyebrows conduct the per- 
spiration down the sides of the face ; that they also 
make the eyes and face appear more beautiful. 

Direct their attention to the wonderful structure of 
the eye; its beauty; its uses; how it enables us to 
gain knowledge ; and the importance of taking care of 
our eyes. Ask the children, Who gave us our eyes, 
and placed them so that they may be preserved from 
injury ? 

Now request the pupils to assist in forming short 
sentences, which will tell what has been learned about 
the eye. Thus the following summary of the lesson 
may be placed on the blackboard, and learned by the 
children : 

THE EYE. 

I have two eyes to see with. They are like balls in deep, bony sock- 
ets^ which protect them from injmy. The black circle in the middle 
is the pupil or window of my eye. The colored ring around the pupil 
is the iris or curtain. The white part is the eyeball. My upper and 
lovjer eyelids cover my eyes and protect them from dust. My eyelashes 
are for beauty, and to brush the dust away from my eyes. My eye- 
brows keep the perspiration from rolling into my eyes ; and they are 
also for beauty. My eyes are washed by tear-drops every time I wink 
my eyelids. 

To presers'e my eyes, I must keep them clean and cool ; I must not 
read or sew in a faint light. 



420 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 



THIRD EXERCISE. 



The Ears. — Lead the children to observe the position 
of the ears, each side of the head ; their shape^ concave 
or dish-shape, to catch sounds ; of the outer edge, or 
r*m / the flap^ the lower, soft part, in which ear-rings 
are placed ; the opening or passage which leads to the 
place where the sounds are made, the drum of the ear — 
a part which can not be seen, as it is about an inch from 
the outer opening. 

Tell the children that sounds are produced by waves 
of air striking against the drum of the ear, and that the 
hearing nei^ves, inside the drum, receive the sound. Il- 
lustrate the waves of air by the circles formed on the 
surface of water when a stone is thrown into it. Tell 
them of the danger of injury to the drum by putting a 
pin or other hard substance into the ear. 

Call attention to the bitter icax in the ]3assage of the 
ear ; to its yellow color ; its use for keejjing insects from 
going into the ears, it being so unpleasant that insects 
avoid it, and so sticky that they could not crawl through 
it ; that sometimes a great deal of this wax collects in 
the ear, and stops up the passage, and prevents the 
waves of air from going in to the drum ; that the ears 
should be kept clean. Also tell the children about the 
stiff hairs in the passage, and that the wax collects 
around the roots of these hairs. 

Now teach the pupils the following summary from 
the blackboard : 

THE EAR. 

My ears are to hear witli. The rim of my ear ; the flap of my ear ; 



ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 421 

the di-um of my ear. The drum of my ear is protected by short, stiff 
hairs, and by hitter wax about the roots of these hairs. 

To preserve my hearing, I must keep my ears clean, and not injure 
the drum with a pin or any thing else. 



FOURTH EXERCISE. 

The Nose— its Parts. — Lead the children to notice the 
position of the nose, in the middle of the face, over the 
month ; of the bridge, or top ; the point, or tip / the 
nostrils, the oval openings through which we breathe 
and smell ; the cartilage, which separates the nostrils. 
Tell the pupils that the cartilage is like the white, tough 
substance seen in beef, called gristle. Tell them, also, 
that the inside of the nostrils are lined with a spongy 
kind of flesh, and that just below the thin skin of this 
soft substance are the smelling nerves. 

Uses. — Let the children notice how easily we breathe 
through the nostrils, with the mouth closed ; the use of 
the sense of smell, to enable us to know whether our 
food is good or bad before putting it in the mouth ; to 
give us pleasure in smelling sweet odors; of the use of 
the nose in making the voice agreeable. Now let the 
pupils learn the summary of 

THE NOSE. 

My nose is to smell and breathe with. It is in the middle of my 
face. The bridge of my nose ; the tip of my nose ; my two nostrils ; 
the cartilage, which separates my nose into two parts. My nostrils 
lead to a passage back of the mouth, through which I breathe. I must 
not destroy my sense of smell by using snuff. 



422 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



FIFTH EXERCISE, 

The Mouth— its Uses. — Talk about the mouth as the 
l^lace from which the voice comes ; of its use for eating 
and drinking, that the body may be sustained ; of its 
use for breathing when the nose is stopped. 

Parts of the Mouth. — Lead the pupils to notice the 
two lips — the upper lip and the lower lip ; their shape, 
curved and rounded ; and color, red ; their motion — up 
and down, out and in ; also that they are soft. 

Of the tongue ; its uses for speaking, eating, and 
drinking ; of its color and shape ; covered with little 
red dots ; that it is the organ of taste ; root of the tongue., 
fastened in the throat, yet soft and flexible, and can be 
moved about easily ; of the teeth., for chewing ; and the 
jaiL^s., of which only the lower one moves when we eat ; 
and the gums^ the flesh which covers the jaws. 

The following summary may now be learned of 

THE MOUTH. 

I use my mouth for speaking, eating^ and breathing. My upper Up) ; 
my lower lip. In my mouth are my tongue, to talk with ; my upper 
teeth; my lower teeth; and my upj^er and lower jaws, covered with 
flesh called gums. 

SIXTH EXERCISE. 
The Teeth. — Direct the attention of the children to 
their teeth. Ask the pupils where they are ; how ar- 
ranged ; of what they are made; tell them about the 
enamel — the white, hard substance which covers the 
teeth; that eating unrij^e, sour fruit will injure the 
enamel. Lead the pupils to notice that their teeth are 



ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 423 

not all alike ; that some are sharp for hitmg or cutting, 
as the front teeth ; that some are pointed for tearing, 
like those each side of the four cutting teeth ; that some 
are broad, for chewing or grinding, like the back teeth. 

Let the children count the number of their teeth in 
each jaw. Tell them about the first set of teeth, those 
that came when they were little children; how a new 
set of teeth grow under them, and push the first ones 
out. Lead the pupils to notice the difierence between 
their own teeth and those of cats and dogs. 

Tell them of the use of the teeth in talking. This 
may be illustrated by the use of the teeth in making 
some of the sounds of letters. Let the children now 
learn and repeat the summary for 

THE TEETH. 

My teeth are used in eating and talking. My teeth are covered with 
enamel. A grown person has four kinds of teeth — cutting teeth, tear- 
ing teeth, crushing teeth, and grinding teeth. In each jaw there are 
f our front teeth, ov ctitters ; two tearers ; two crushers ; 2indi four grind- 
ers. A young child has twenty teeth — ten in each jaw ; a grown per- 
son has thirty-two teeth — sixteen in eachjaiv. 

To preserve my teeth, I must keep them clean ; I must not scratch 
the enamel. I must not eat unripe fruit, nor drink any thing very hot 
or very cold. I must not use my teeth for scissors, or nut-crackers. 



SEVENTH EXERCISE. 

Eating. — A very important lesson on eating may be 
given the children while they are taking their lunch. 
Lead them 4o notice that they move only the lower 
jaw; that the upper jaw does not move; that the food 
is rolled about by the tongue ; that it becomes moist 
with saliva before it is swallowed ; that we cut or bite 



424 PEIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

our food with the front teeth; that we grind it with 
the back teeth. Tell them of the imj^ortance of chew- 
ing the food finely before swallowing it ; that we have 
no control over it after it is swallowed. 

Tell them about the two tubes in the throat — one, the 
food-pipe, leading to the stomach ; the other, the wind- 
pipe, leading to the lungs. That the windpipe has a 
trap-door to close it when we swallow. That the food 
passes over this trap-door ; that when we talk or laugh 
this trap-door opens ; that sometimes, on its way down, 
a little bit of food gets into the windpipe, and produces 
violent coughing and great distress. Tell the children 
of the danger of laughing, or talking, or causing others 
to laugh when they are swallowing food or drink. 

Let the pupils now learn the following summary of 

EATING. 

When I eat, I move my lower jaw only. The tongue brings my 
food between my teeth. The cutters cut it ; the tearers tear it ; the 
crushers crush it ; the grinders grind it. The saliva moistens it ; and 
my tongue helps me to swallow it. 

To preserve my health, I must not eat too often nor too fast. I 
must not swallow my food until it is well chewed. I must not talk or 
laugh while swallowing. 

Suggestions for Teachers. — These exercises on the "Organs of 
the Senses" may be given to any class in the First, Second, or Third 
Reader, provided that each fact is so presented that the children un- 
derstand it. But to teach any class to repeat a summary of a lesson 
without first gifftig the pupils a training exercise on that subject would 
be a violation of the principles of good teaching. ^ 

N.B. — It Avill add interest to each summar}^ of these lessons to allow 
the children, as they repeat them, to touch or point to the parts men- 
tioned, as indicated by the words printed in italics. 



SHAPE, USES, AND GKOWTH OF BONES. 425 



LESSON ON THE 

SHAPE, USES, AND GEOWTH OF BONES. 

FIRST EXERCISE, 

The Skull.— Let the children feel of the head ; tell 
how it feels, and why it feels hard ; notice its shape ; 
tell them the name of the bones of the head — skull ; 
also that the skull is composed of several pieces of thin 
bones joined together at the edges. Cut pieces of pa- 
per to illustrate the toothed edges of the skull bones, 
and show how they are hooked together. 

Tell them that the bones of the skull are not perfect 
on the top of a baby's head ; that care should be taken 
not to injure the tender skull of a young child. Tell 
them also about the use of the skull as a case for pro- 
tecting the brain from injury. 

A summary may be written on the blackboard of 

THE SKULL. 

My skull is formed of several bones, united at the edges like two 
saws with hooked teeth. 



SECONP EXERCISE. 

Backbone. — Let the children show the position of the 
hacJcbone^ and feel of its projections at the back of the 
neck. Tell them that these bones, which they can feel, 
are a part of the SJt9^??e, or backbone ; that the spine is 
composed of about tioenty-four bones, piled upon each 
other somewhat like a pile of cups, or saucers, bottom 



426 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 

side up ; that between these bones is a thick, tough 
gristle, or elastic eartilage^ which allows the bones of 
the back to move freely. 

Tell the children that the pile of bones and cartilages 
which form the backbone is called the spinal column. 
Illustrate the term column, and lead the pupils to un- 
derstand that it is 2i flexible column. Lead them also 
to consider the advantages " of having the backbone 
composed of several pieces, and made to bend easily. 

The pupils may now be requested to aid in construct- 
ing the summary for the 

SPINE. 

My spine extends from the base of my skull^ behind, down the middle 
of my hack. It is made up of twenty-four short bones, piled one upon 
the other, with elastic cartilages between them. These bones are fast- 
ened together, forming an upright and flexible column^ which makes 
me erect and graceful. 



THIRD EXERCISE. 

Ribs. — Let the children touch their ribs, and lead 
them to ascertain that these bones are fastened to the 
spine and breast-bone ; that they have twelve ribs on 
each side ; that seven on each side extend to the breast- 
bone, and the other five are connected with it by carti- 
lages ; that the shape of the ribs is curved. Show a 
picture of the ribs, and lead th^ pupils to see that these 
bones form a cage or hollow place to hold and protect 
the heart, lungs, and stomach. 

Tell the children of the strength of the ribs ; also that 
they are light. Lead them to understand why these 
bones should be strong and light. Show them the im- 
portance of wearing clothing so that it shall not press 



SHAPE, USES, AND GROWTH OF BONES. 427 

the ribs together, and leave too little room for the heart 
and lungs. 

The pupils may now assist the teacher in construct- 
ing the summary for 

THE EIBS. 

I have twenty-four ribs, twelve on each side. They are fastened at 
the back to my spine, in front to my breast-bone, forming a hollow place 
for my heart, lungs, and stomach. My ribs are curved, strong, and 
light. 



FOURTH EXERCISE. 

Shoulder-blades. — Let the children feel of the shoul- 
der-Nades, and learn their shape — broad, flat, thin, and 
triangular ; and that the arms rest upon them. 

Collar-bones. — The pupils may, also learn the position 
and shape of the collar-bones by touching them. Tell 
them that these bones form a kind of brace between 
the shoulder and the breast-bone, and keep the arms 
from going too far forward. 

The summary may now be taught for 

SHOULDER-BLADES AND COLLAR-BONES. 

My shoulder-blades are flat, thin, and of a triangular shape. They 
are for my arms to rest upon. 

My collar-bones are fastened to my shoulder-blades and my breast- 
bone. They help support my arms, and keep them from moving too 
far forward. 



FIFTH EXERCISE. 

Growth of Bones. — Talk with the children about 
young and old trees, how one may be more easily bent 
than the other; how the bones of children will bend. 



428 PEIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

while those of old persons break more easily ; thus lead 
them to perceive the difference between the bones of 
children and those of grown people. 

Tell the pupils of the importance of standing and sit- 
ting erect, that their bones may grow in a proper shape ; 
and of the need of wearing loose clothing while young. 

Bones made from Food.— Tell the children more about 
the making of blood from the food, and that the bones, 
as well as the flesh, are formed from the blood. Tell 
them also of the importance of eating good food, that 
good blood may be made, and the bones grow to be 
strong. 

Use of pure Air. — Call the attention of the pupils to 
what they have previously learned about the effects of 
air upon the blood, and then lead them to understand 
the importance of breathing ji9i«"e air^ if they would have 
healthy and strong bones. 

The teacher may now write the summary on the 
blackboard for the 

GROWTH OP BONES. 

The bones of old people are hard and brittle ; those of children are 
soft and flexible. / must sit and stand erect, that my bones may not 
be bent out of shape. I must not wear tight clothing, nor do any thing 
that will crowd my bones out of their places. 

My bones are made from my food, after it has been changed into 
blood ; so I must be careful to eat good, wholesome food, that my bones 
may be strong and healthy. I must not breathe impure air, because 
it makes bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones. 



Suggestion for Teachers. — This series of exercises may be 
commenced when the pupils are able to begin reading in a Second 
Reader. 



THE SKIN. 429 



LESSONS ABOUT 

THE S K I K 

FIRST EXERCISE. 

Qualities of the Skin. — Talk with the children about 
the covering or skin of the sheep, cow, horse, cat, dog, 
birds, etc. ; then of the thin skin which covers our bod- 
ies. Let the pupils see that it is elastic, by squeezing 
the skin of the hands and cheeks, and noticing that it 
returns to its shape again. Let them see that it inflex- 
ible, by bending the finger and by pinching the skin. 

Ask them what comes on the face and other parts of 
the skin in very warm weather. Tell them that the 
perspiration oozes from the skin through little holes 
called j9ore5. Ask them what we say of any thing that 
is full of little holes. Tell them that we say the skin is 
jooroz^5, because it is full of little holes, through which 
the perspiration comes out. These pores are so small 
and so numerous that the end of the little finger, if 
placed on the hand or face, would cover hundreds of 
them. 

Parts of the Skin. — The children may now be told 
about the three layers of the skin — the outside, or cuti- 
cle, the inside or real skin, and the middle layer, or col- 
oring matter. Explain to them that the outside skin 
has no feeling ; that it is transparent ; that it is thepart 
which rises when the skin is blistered ; that the cuticle 
is thicker in the palms of the hands, and on the soles of 
the feet ; that it becomes thick and hard by using the 
hand in work, to protect the true skin from injury. 



430 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

Explain by suitable illustrations that the real skin is 
like net-work ; that it is composed of very fine blood- 
vessels and nerves, so numerous that we can not prick 
it with a sharp needle without touching some of the 
blood-vessels, and causing blood to flow out, nor with- 
out touching some of the nerves and causing pain. 



SECOND EXERCISE. 

Color of the Skin. — Call attention to the differences 
in the color of the skins of people of different countries, 
as of the Indian, Negro, Chinese, and others. Tell the 
children that between the cuticle and the real skin there 
is a very thin, jelly-like substance, which is spread all 
over the body ; that this substance is white in those 
whose skin is white, and black in the Negro, red in the 
Indian, and yellow in the Chinese ; that it differs in 
people as the color of their skins differ. 

Talk with the children about what happens after the 
skin is cut or scratched ; lead them to notice that when 
only the outside skin is scratched, it heals up, leaving 
no mark or scar ; and that a deep cut, or burn, which 
destroys the real or inner skin, leaves a scar Avhen it 
heals, because the inner skin will not grow again when 
once destroyed. 

Perspiration. — Teach the children that some of the 
waste or worn-out substances of the body are always 
coming out through the pores of the skin, whether we 
feel the perspiration or not. Talk with them about the 
importance of washing the skin of the body to remove 
all this waste matter, and keep the pores open. Tell 
them also of the importance of wearing clean clothing, 
that the skin may keep healthy. 



THE SKIN. 431 

The pupils may also be told of the beneficial effects 
of pure air and sunlight. Illustrate this by the sickly 
aj)pearance of plants that grow in cellars or dark places. 

It may be found desirable, in giving this lesson on 
the skin, to divide it into three exercises. Whenever 
the children understand the various facts presented 
about the skin, let the following summary be taught : 

THE SKIN. 

My skin covers my body. It is thin, elastic, flexible, porous, and 
absorbent. My skin has three parts, or layers. The outer skin, or 
cuticle ; the inner, or real skin ; and the colored substance between 
them. My outside skin is not of the same thickness over my whole 
body. On the palms of my hands and the soles of my feet, it is very 
thick and tough. If my outer skin be destroyed, it will grow again ; 
but if my real skin is destroyed, it will never grow again. 

More than half the waste substance of my body passes from it through 
the pores of my skin in the form of perspiration. To preserve my 
health, I must keep my body clean ; I must wear clean clothing ; I 
must breathe pure air, and live in the sunlight. 



MORAL TRAINING. 



" Simple thoughts of God and Christian virtues, impressed upon us 
in early childhood, are never erased from memory or heart." 



" TuAiisr up a child in the way he should go" is not 
only God's command to parents, but it is society's first 
demand on both teacher and parent. This training, 
too, is one of the first needs of the child's own nature. 
With it, happiness is within his reach ; without it, not 
only is his own happiness impossible, but he will inter- 
fere with the rightful enjoyment of others. 

This training should be commenced at home very 
early. As soon as emotion is exhibited by the child it 
may be biased by education. The impressions that ad- 
here longest to us, and are the deepest rooted, are those 
of which we remember not the origin — those Avhich we 
imbibed unconsciously in infancy. The child's dispo- 
sition may receive during this period a strong bent to 
good. Then there are no obstacles to overcome ; noth- 
ing to unlearn ; the afiections are soft and pliable. If 
this period pass without moral training, the difficulties 
are greatly increased, the aff*ections take a bent of their 
own. 

The great means of training the moral feelings is to 
draw them out into action. A feeling without action 
is mere sentiment; it does nothing. If Ave would cul- 
tivate kindness in children, we must show kindness in 
our deeds ; if reverence, we must exhibit the example 



MORAL TRAINING. 433 

of reverence; if we would develop, ideas of justice, hon- 
esty, truthfulness, we must improve the opportunities 
of daily intercourse to exemplify them. 

It will be of little use to tell the child about rever- 
ence, justice, honesty, truthfulness, if these are never 
acted before it ; it is only by acts that the child can 
know them. We have too much abstract teaching in 
morals, as well as in mental education. The law of ex- 
ercise is of universal application to moral and mental, 
as well as to physical training. And there is greater 
room for activity here than most of us at first suppose. 
The daily occurrences of the schoolroom, and the inci- 
dents ■ of the playground, furnish opportunities for the 
most effective lessons in morals. To seize upon these 
opportunities, and to improve them in the right spirit, 
should be the earnest aim of every teacher. 

Let the golden rule be the key-note in moral train- 
ing; teach the children to do to others as they would 
have others do to them. This positive teaching is the 
characteristic feature of the morality of the New Tes- 
tament. This moral instruction should be commenced 
with the first day's attendance at school, and continued 
hj practice and precept with every day's lessons, or in- 
cidents that furnish an appropriate opportunity. 

Much of this instruction may be most profitably 
given incidentally, without stated times for moral train- 
ing ; yet there are first ideas of God, virtue, right, love 
to others, duty, etc., which might be taken up and pre- 
sented in regular succession for the development of sim- 
ple moral and religious truths as a foundation for future 
instruction. 

Children should be taught ideas of God as a hind fa- 
ther ; of God as the maker of all things ; of aji immor- 
T 



434 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSOXS. 

talmmd; of co7iscie7ice ; of truth; of obecUe?ice ; of in- 
dustry ; of cleanliness ; of order. And all of this train- 
ing should be simple, familiar, and free from technical 
phrases and formal teaching ; it should be chiefly illus- 
trated by examples and incidents from life. " Our Fa- 
ther, who art in heaven," should be the key-note of this 
instruction ; then love, reverence, and obedience to Him 
would have a real significance to the young. 

Let the fundamental ideas of religion be thus estab- 
lished in early childhood, and they will shine out clear- 
ly in future years, an anchor of rescue to the soul when 
happiness and life seem in danger of being wrecked by 
the billows of passion or avarice, or by evil habits. 
Simple moral truths thus early implanted in the heart 
have rescued many a noble youth from the whirlpool 
of corruption, when all other lessons of wisdom had 
been washed away by the wild waves of passion. 

A few lessons and subjects for lessons will suggest 
what course may be pursued in giving children ideas of 
God, of the soul, of conscience, of truthfulness, honesty, 
obedience, etc. 



GOD AS A KIND FATHER. 435 



TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF 

GOD AS A KIND FATHEK. 

I WISH to talk with you, children, about those you love. 
Some of you may love your mothers best, some your fa- 
thers ; some love your brothers, your sisters, and your 
cousins. Those who would like to tell me whom you 
love best may hold up their hands. 

Very well ; you have told me whom you love best ; 
now who can tell me lohy you love one person better 
than any body else? Why do you love your mother 
best? 

Why do you love your father best ? Why do you 
love your sister ? Why do you love your brother ? 

What did your mother do for you before you came 
to school this morning ? What will she do when you 
go home ? If you are sick, or any one hurts you, to 
whom do you go and tell your trouble ? Who is pleased 
to hear that you have been a good child ? Who works 
to get money to buy your clothes, and food for you to 
eat? 

In this manner, by familiar conversation, the teacher 
should lead the children to talk freely upon the different 
acts which show the love of their friends, and endeavor 
to call out their warmest feelings of love and gratitude 
in return. , 

Why do your parents thus feed and clothe you, and 
kiss you, and watch over you when you are sick ? 

Yes, because they love you. All of you have some 
kind friends who love and care for you. 

Now, children, listen very attentively, and I will tell 



436 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

you about a Friend that you all have — one who is kind 
to all of you — one who loves you better than your fa- 
ther or your mother does — one who takes care of you 
at all times — one who watches over you when you are 
asleep as well as when you are awake; for he never 
sleeps — one who is ready to give you all things you ask 
him for. Do any of you know who it is that I mean ? 

This good friend is God. You can not see him, but 
he always sees you, and knows all about you. He tells 
us to call him Father because he loves us as a father. 
He is in heaven — he is our Father in heaven. 

Now tell me what kind, good Friend we all have ? 
What does he tell us to call him ? 

Who is this good Friend ? Where is he ? What 
does he do for us ? 

How ought you to feel toward so good a Friend ? 
"Love him." 

What should you do in return for the many kind 
things which He does for you? "Thank him every 
day." 

How should you act when you know what He desires 
you to do ? " Obey him." 

The teacher may now write on the blackboard, and 
require the pupils to read and learn the following : God 
is our father in heaven. He loves us, and takes care of 
lis. We ought to obey Him, and love Him, and thanh 
Him every day. 

The teacher should aim to impress the children with 
a feeling of reverential love to God. This love may be 
awakened by bringing the affection to their 23arents into 
lively exercise, and then directing it to their heavenly 
Father; their reverence may be awakened by making 
them feel that God is far above us in heaven; thouo^h 



GOD AS THE MAKER OF ALL THINGS. 437 

invisible to our eyes, that he still cares for and watches 
over us day and night — that he is our heavenly Father. 
Much of the effect of these lessons will depend upon the 
manner and feeling with which they are given. They 
should be so conducted as to call into exercise the emo- 
tions and moral feelings of the children. 



TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF 

GOD AS THE MAKER OF ALL THINGS. 

Let us have a talk to-day about making different 
thino-s that you wear and see about you. Who made 
your shoes for you ? Who made your dress ? Could 
things make themselves ? 

No, it would be very silly to think they could. Who 
made the bread you eat ? Could the bread make itself? 

Other questions should be asked, leading the children 
to see that things must have a maker, and that they 
could not make themselves. 

Can your father make any thing? Here allow the 
children to talk about what their different fathers can 
do. The art of the teacher is first to call out the mind 
and heart into activity, and then to direct the thoughts 
and feelings. 

You can tell me who made your shoes, your clothes, 
and the bread you eat, but I want to talk about some- 
thing much more beautiful than these, and see if you 
can tell who made them. You have all seen the sun. 
How brightly it shines ! It warms us and gives us 



438 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. 

light. Can any of you tell me who made this beauti- 
ful sun ? " It was God who made the sun to warm us 
and give us light and heat." What did God make? 
Why did he make the sun ? 

What did I tell you about God the other day ? All 
of you may repeat it together. 

" God is our Father in heaven ; He loves us, and takes 
care of us. We ought to obey Him, and love Him, and 
thank Him every day.'''' 

What has God made ? " God made the beautiful sun 
that warms us and gives us light." 

If there were no sun you could not see. It would 
also be cold, and nothing would grow. God is good, 
tlien, to give us the sun. Who made the sun ? For 
whose good has God made the sun ? 

What good is it to us ? "It gives us light and warmth, 
and causes the grain to grow." 

God makes all the trees, and plants, and flowers 
grow ; He made all the animals and birds ; and He 
made us also. Now let us think what He has given 
us. How do you know what is in this room ? " We 
can see the things." 

What do you see with ? " Qur eyes." 

Who gave you eyes ? 

How do you know I am talking to you ? " We can 
hear you." 

With what do you hear ? " With our ears." 

Who gave you ears ? 

How do you know that fur is soft and iron hard ? 
" By feeling them." 

Who gave you feeling ? 

How do you know that sugar is sweet and lemon 
sour ? " By tasting them." 



GOD AS THE MAKER OP ALL THINGS. 439 

Who gave you taste ? 

How do you know that the rose has a pleasant odor ? 
" By smelling it." 

Who gave you smell ? 

Now all these things give you pleasure ; it is pleas- 
ant to see, and hear, and feel, and taste, and smell ; and 
these things should make you haj^py, and make you love 
God for giving you so many senses to add to your ha\> 
piness. 

How should you feel toward God for giving you all 
these good things ? " We should love Him and thank 
Him." 

The teacher may write on the blackboard, and re- 
quest the pupils to read, the following : 

God made the su7i to give us light and heat, a^id cause 
the grass, andfloioers, and grain, and trees to groio. He 
made the birds and aiiimals, and made us also. He 
gave us our eyes, and ears, and taste, and smell, and feel- 
ing. For all these we shoidd love Him. 



440 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. 



TO DEVELOP 

IDEAS OF THE SOUL.* 

Children, have cats, dogs, horses, and cows bodies ? 
"Yes." 

Can they see ? and hear ? and taste ? and smell ? and 
feel? Can they talk? 

Have they flesh, and blood, and bones, and skin ? 

Are their bodies like yours ? 

Who gave them their bodies ? " God." 

Who gave them taste, and feeling, and sight, and 
hearing? "God." 

Are the bodies of animals like your bodies ? 

How many legs have you ? How many legs has the 
dog ? Has the dog arms ? Has the dog hands ? 

No, the dog has legs instead of arms. Your skin is 
smooth ; with Avhat is the dog's skin covered ? 

Is the cat's body like yours ? Is the chicken's body 
like yours ? How many legs has the chicken ? Has the 
chicken feet like yours ? With what is the cat's body 
covered? What covers the chicken's body? 

What has the chicken in the place of arms, or two 
legs? 

Who gave bodies to dogs, horses, cows, chickens, and 
flies ? Who keeps them alive ? 

* In a little volume entitled " Peep of Day," published by the Amer- 
ican Tract Society, ideas of the body, of God as a father, and of the 
soul, are admirably drawn out in simple illustrations for children. We 
are chiefly indebted to that volume for this lesson on the soul. We 
can not do a better service in illustrating how to proceed in moral 
training than by commending that book to teachers and parents. 



IDEAS OF THE SOUL. 441 

Can a dog or a horse thank God? No; dogs, and 
horses, and cows, and chickens can not thank God; 
they can not think of God. They never heard of God. 
They can not understand about God, because they have 
no souls, or minds, like yours. Your soul can think of 
God, and thank him for all that he does for you. It 
often tells you what is right and what is wro7ig. 

If you had no soul or mind you could not learn to 
read and write. You could not learn about God and 
all the beautiful things that He made for us. Your 
soul will never die. It is the best part of you. 

Your body is made of dust. God made the dust into 
flesh, and bones, and blood. Your soul is made of the 
breath of God. 

Some day the dog will die, and its body will be 
thrown away. The dog will be quite gone when its 
body is dead. But when your body dies your soul will 
still live ; it will go back to God who gave it. Your 
body will decay, and turn to dust again ; but your soul 
will live forever ; it will never die. 

It is your soul that thinks ; if we wish to make any 
thing, we can think how to make it, and then use the 
tools to make it. If we want more tools we can make 
them too. Birds can build nests, but they can not use 
tools, nor make any thing except what God taught them 
to do. Animals can learn a few things, but children 
can learn a great many things. 

The teacher may write on the blackboard, for the 
pupils to read, as a summary of the lesson — 

God gave each of us a body, and placed in it a soul. 
The soul is that part of us lohich thinks, and loill never 



T2 



442 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. 

In a manner similar to that pursued in these lessons, 
the teacher may proceed to develop ideas of Conscience, 
right and wrong; of self-control, gentleness, truthful- 
ness, honesty, kindness to others and to animals ; of 
obedience, punctuality, order, cleanliness, industry, etc. 

Ample illustrations will occur to exhibit what is meant 
by right and wrong ; and the pupils should frequently 
be called upon to decide in simple cases ivhich is the 
one and which the other. A little volume by Jacob 
Abbott, " Learning about Right and Wrong," will be 
useful in suggesting how to give these lessons. 

Illustrate the unkindness of calling names, and of 
mocking the aged or infirm ; of ]3inching and teasing 
each other ; and train children to understand the im- 
portance of forming good habits, and the danger of form- 
ing bad ones, in childhood. 

Finally, take the examples of the Great Teacher as a 
model. Observe how He selected familiar scenes and 
objects to illustrate His truths. Study His methods, 
seek His guidance, accept His promises, and success and 
happiness will be the crown. 



THE END. 



A SERIES OE 

SCHOOL AND FAMILY CHARTS. 

ACCOMPANIED BY A 

MANUAL OF OBJECT LESSONS AND ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 

By MARCIUS WILLSON and N. A. CALKINS. 



§\ 



These beautiful Charts, 22 in number, each about 24 by 30 inches, 
and abounding in colored illustrations, are designed, in connection 
with the "Manual" and the "Primary Object Lessons," to furnish 
the teacher requisite aids in the system of Elementary Instruction by 
"Object Lessons." They are mounted on eleven pasteboard cards 
for the use of the schoolroom, and are also put up in portfolio form 
for- family instruction. 

These Charts will be furnished either separately or in full sets, 
either mounted or in sheets. When mounted, two are on a card of 
the size of each Chart — about 22 by 30 inches. In sheets, they can 
be sent by mail ; the mounted Charts are not mailable. 

No. T, Elementary : Sixty Illustrated Words $0 35 

No.II. Reading: First Lessons 35 

, No. III. Reading : Second Lessons 35 

5 j No. IV. Reading : Third Lessons 35 

(S I No. V. Reading : Fourth Lessons 35 

L. No. VI. Reading : Fifth Lessons 35 

No. VII. Elementary Sounds 35 

No.VIIL Phonic Spelling 35 

No, IX. Writing Chart 35 

No. X. Drawing and Perspective 35 

"g f No. XI. Lines and Measures S5 

Sg I No. XIL Forms and Solids 35 

£ H "( No. XIII. Familiar Colors, accompanied by a duplicate set 

of Hand Color-Cards 150 

No. XrV. Chromatic Scale of Colors 1 20 

^ f No. XV. Animals. Economical Uses 60 

3'i J No. XVI. Classification of Animals 60 

g.a 1 No. XVIL Birds. Their Classification. CO 

N tNo.XVIIL ReptUes and Fishes 60 

f No. XIX. Botanical Forms, &c 60 

g ^- j No. XX. Classification of Plants 60 

o J j No. XXI. Economical Uses of Plants 60 

f^ [_ No. XXII. Economical Uses, continued 60 

Price of the entire Set, in Sheets, net 11 70 

" " '^ " Mounted, " 18 00 

'' " " " Atlas Form " ; 20 00 

While these Charts, mounted on a hea^y binder's board, are de- 
signed more especially as aids in carrying out a system of elementary 
school instruction upon the object-lesson method, they are also, in at- 
las form, admirably adapted — in their plan and arrangement, by the 
attractiveness of their colored illustrations, and by the interest that 
attaches to the subjects which they embrace — to family use. 



O O 1 



PHONIC CHAETS. 

FOR 

SELF-TRAINING IN THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 

By N. a. calkins, 

Author of "Primary Object Lessons," "Manual of Object Teaching," &c. 

The Set comprises 12 Charts, size 18 by 28 inches, mounted on a 
single roller. Price $3 CO per set, sent by mail. 



These charts are printed on bleached manilla paper, which for durability is 
second only to parchment. They combine simplicity of arrangement, conve- 
nience of form, cheapness, and durability in a greater degree than any Sound 
Charts before offered to the public. 

In our country, which has become the adopted home of people from all the 
countries of the earth, there is an urgent necessity for a systematic course of 
training in the correct sounds of our language. Our public schools contain 
pupils whose mother-tongues represent all nations ; and in these institutions 
all are to be assimilated— Americanized. The ordinary lessons of school in 
reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, and even of grammar, do not supply 
the needed training of the vocal organs to give those habits in speaking our 
language which ought to be formed by children while at school. 

It is believed that these Charts contain a classification so simple, and an 
arrangement so well adapted to teaching the sounds, that, with the directions 
which they contain for their use, even those teachers who have had but little or 
even no previous instruction on the subject can use them successfully. 



MANUAL OF OBJECT TEACHING, 



AND 



PEINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. 

By N. a. calkins. 

Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth. {In Press.) 



This volume is intended, in connection with the " Primary Object Lessons," 
to present a complete course of instruction by the system of Object Teaching, 
embracing the period and the methods of elementary training necessary to 
fit youth for the acquisition of such knowledge from books and from nature 
as will prepare them for the duties of subsequent life. 

It will contain lessons on "Place and the Elementary Steps of Geography," 
"Weight and the Tables," "Physical Training," "Animals," "Plants," 
"Minerals," "Productions," "Occupations," «&c., and Mental Science in its 
relations to teaching, with Principles of Education. 



